Istanbul: The Pearl of History

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If you ever take a look at some of the related publications presenting Istanbul, you will see that almost every passage begins with such phrases as the gateway between Europe and Asia, the crossroads of many important routes since centuries, "a bridge between ages, nations and civilizations. Istanbul has captivated generations of travelers. Writers and poets as diverse as Lady Mary Montagu and Lord Byron, Lamartine and Pierre Loti, have eulogized its forested shores sprinkled with palaces and ancient timber mansions. It stands on the shores of the uniquely beautiful Bosphorous where the waters of the Black Sea combine with those of the Sea of Marmara and the Golden Horn. Istanbul is a province designed to be the capital, and it has been the capital of three empires that used to dominate the world. Even today, after decades of rampant urbanization, its remaining imperial residences, summer embassies and pashas' houses paint a convincing picture of the city's glorious imperial past.

The artistic history of Istanbul is very rich and goes back to the beginning of the human civilization. The Hittites rose to prominence in Istanbul and Anatolia (central part of nowadays Republic of Turkey) in 1800 BC and reigned until 100 BC. They were experts in metalwork and had left behind delicate statues made from gold, bronze and copper, particularly of the fertility goddess they worshipped. Many examples of these relics are on exhibition at the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations in Istanbul. Metal tablets written in Hittite hieroglyphics give us some clues about the daily and ceremonial lives of the Hittites. The capital of the Hittites, Hattusas, still preserves the remnants of the temples, the Royal Gate and especially the Lion Gate, from which you can sense the splendor of the Hittite Empire.

The intensity and the quality of the remains from the Greek and Roman Empires in Istanbul impart the feeling that you have traveled through a time machine and arrived in the Hellenistic Era. The remaining artistic and architectural pieces provide us with information about the daily life of the ancient Greeks and Romans. Most of the cities have museums preserving the artifacts, such as sculptural relieves, statues, jewelry, household utensils, frescoes, and mosaics. Besides these artifacts, the ruins of the period still standing in Istanbul exhibit their treasures as an open-air museum. By the fourth century, the Roman Empire had been divided into East and West, and Christianity was firmly rooted in both, giving rise to the numerous churches and monasteries spread all over the country. Istanbul became the capital city of the East Roman Empire, mostly known as Byzantine Empire. Istanbul at that time had a name "Constantinopole". The Byzantine churches have their own style that is an integration of Roman and oriental influences and they are termed as basilica. The great Saint Sophia in Istanbul, built during the reign of emperor Justinian, is the largest Christian basilica on earth. Its interior is made of marble and decorated with mosaics of various colors like deep blue and red. The Sumela Monastery is another important Byzantine ruin situated on the shores of Istanbul.

During its lifetime, Istanbul endured no fewer than twenty-two sieges, of which only six resulted in capture. The most celebrated siege, led by Sultan Mehmet the Conqueror in 145, brought eleven centuries of Byzantine rule to an end and established Constantinople as a new capital of the growing Ottoman empire. After that, successive sultans embarked on an ambitious building program, redesigning the city to suit the needs of its conquerors. To raise the economic fortunes of the city, sultans of the Ottoman Empire built "Kapali Carsi", the Covered Bazaar, which was to remain the labyrinthine commercial heart of Istanbul until the middle of twentieth century. Nowadays, Kapali Carsi is the place of traders, jewelers and travelers from all over the world.

The milestone of the Ottoman Empire architecture is Topkapi Saray, "Cannon Gate Palace". From the outside Topkapi Saray lacks the grandeur associated with European palaces. It is an inward-looking complex, concerned essentially with its own private world, shut off from outside by imposing gateways and mammoth stone walls. Entering through the Gate of Perpetual Delight, every person feels himself immersed into the mysterious world of Ottoman intrigue, the secrets of the sultan's harem, and the most extensive example of Ottoman civil architecture ever built.

During the mid-nineteenth century the shores of Istanbul witnessed a radical shift in architectural style. The classical Ottoman and Turkish architecture was rapidly abandoned in favor to a European-based classicism. While Mehmet the Conqueror's Topkapi Palace hides behind the mammoth walls, Dolmabahce Palace, a marble bulk of neo-classical proportions, makes its presence felt by setting squarely on the water edge of the Bosphorous. The Dolmabahce Palace is an impressive building facing the sea with very high walls on the side facing inland. The main building is surrounded by magnificent palace gardens. The palace itself is a three-storey building, with two main storeys rising over a half sunken floor. It contains 85 rooms, four grand salons, six galleries and six baths. The vast reception salon, with more than fifty columns and a huge crystal chandelier weighing four and a half tons and lit by 750 lights never fails to astonish visitors. At the center of the palace lies one of the largest throne rooms in Europe. Designed by best French decorators and architects, the throne room is an awesome example of baroque excess. It is a heavily articulated room of piers and arches reaching to a towering dome supported by Corinthian columns in group of four and five. The dome is decorated with foliate sculptures and paintings; within this circular composition, the gorgeous windows look out onto a blue sky and fair-weather clouds. The beauty of the room is completed with the European-style oil paintings, primarily landscapes and city scenes.

Istanbul is one of the richest cities in historical background, as well as one of the most beautiful, enchanting and alive cities of the world. It has an atmosphere of its own lifestyle, people and numerous attractions. In Istanbul you will have to be generous with time since it has so much to show. The former capital of three successive empires - Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman today Istanbul honors and preserves the legacy of its past while looking forward to its modern future.

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The Catholic Belief in the Eucharist

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First of all, you need to know that this doctrine is one of the hardest things in the Catholic faith for anyone to understand. Heck, some of Jesus' own followers didn't believe him when he said for them to eat his body. "At this point, many of his disciples turned away and deserted him" (John 6:66). What did the 12 Apostles (the Catholic Church's first Bishops) think about the disciples' actions? Well, when Jesus asked them if they were going to leave, Simon, our first Pope, said "Lord, to whom would we go? You alone have the words that give eternal life" (John 6:68). So, obviously the Bishops of the early Church believed a doctrine that turned many of Jesus' disciples away.

Personally, I had the hardest time understanding the Real Presence of Jesus in the Eucharist. It took me almost 9 months after I decided to get serious about church to accept this doctrine as truth. I'm going to recommend that you get a book called Beginning Apologetics Volume 1. I read the section on the Eucharist and it turned my whole way of thinking around. That's where I got a lot of this stuff I'm writing about. The book is awesome with other stuff too. It should only cost about 5 bucks. Okay. On to the good stuff.......

Let's look at the Bible first. It seems to be a good place to start.

The first thing we will look at is John 6:33- "The true bread of God is the one that comes down from heaven and gives life to the world" (John 6:33). Correct me if I'm wrong but did Jesus not come down from heaven? Didn't he die on the cross so we could have life? So he fits the criteria for this verse. If you replace "Jesus" with "the true bread of God," you get "Jesus is the one that comes down from heaven and gives life to the world." My conclusion from this is that "Jesus" is interchangeable with "true bread of God" (or something to that effect). In John 6:35, Jesus says "I am the bread of life." So obviously, Jesus is the bread talked about in the earlier verse.

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What about John 6:48-51? It reads, "Yes, I am the bread of life...However, the bread from heaven gives eternal life to everyone who eats it. I am the living bread that came down from heaven. Anyone who eats this bread will live forever; this bread is my flesh, offered so the world may live." In this reading from the Gospel of John, Jesus tells us that he is the bread of life. But more importantly, he tells us, "this bread is my flesh." Note how Jesus does not say, "this bread symbolizes my flesh," or "this bread represents my flesh."

"I assure you, unless you eat the flesh of the Son of Man and drink his blood, you cannot have eternal life within you. But those who eat my flesh and drink my blood have eternal life, and I will raise them up on the last day. For my flesh is true food, and my blood is true drink. All who eat my flesh and drink my blood remain in me, and I in them" (John 6:53-56). Jesus says that if you don't eat the body of Christ, then you can't have eternal life. What if you eat something that represents the body of Christ? Jesus says no, because his body is true food.

Have you ever thought of the possibility that the meaning was lost in the translation? Well, did you know that the phrase "eat my body, and drink my blood" has two meanings in Greek (in which the New Testament was written)? The first is to literally eat the flesh of a human and drink his blood. The second is to persecute someone. So obviously, Jesus doesn't mean eternal life will be given to those who persecute him.

In all of John 6, Jesus tells us to eat the bread of life and then says that he is the bread of life, he tells us to eat his flesh, which is true food, and drink his blood, which is true drink.

Jesus fulfilled every prophesy in the Old Testament, but he also amended several things the Old Testament. On such thing can be found in Deuteronomy 8:3. "[P]eople need more than bread for their life; real life comes from feeding on every word of the Lord." To understand this verse, we need to look at another verse from John's Gospel. "So the Word became human and lived here on earth among us" (John 1:14). Since we can see that the Word of God was Jesus Christ, we can use this to understand the Old Testament verse. Since Jesus is the Word of God, let's substitute the name "Jesus" for "Word of the Lord." We now have, "[P]eople need more than bread for their life; real life comes from feeding on Jesus." We know that this is not the exact wording in Scripture, but we now understand what God is telling us by using the New Testament to explain the Old Testament.

It is obvious to anyone who studies the Last Supper that Jesus said four different times, while holding bread, "this is my body." Matthew 26:26, "Take this and eat it, for this is my body." Mark 14:22, "Take it, for this is my body." Luke 22:19, "This is my body, given for you." 1 Corinthians 11:24, "This is my body, which is broken for you." When looking at the Gospels, you can see that Jesus meant that the bread became his body.

There have also been several miracles regarding the true flesh and blood of Jesus Christ. There are over 30 different miracles in the book Eucharistic Miracles by Joan Carroll Cruz. One miracle told in this book took place in Lanciano, Italy, in the 8th century. At the elevation of the host, it became a circle of flesh, and the wine became visible blood. While the flesh remained intact, the blood split into five separate pellets. The monks of the area had the pellets weighed. One nugget weighed as much as all five, any two weighed as much as the other three, and the largest weighed as much as the smallest. In 1971, a scientist studied the flesh and blood of this miracle that took place over 1200 years ago. He concluded that the flesh was from the wall of the heart, which would have been impossible to obtain in the 8th century and even more impossible to make such a clean cut. The flesh had no trace of any type of preservative in it. The flesh and blood were of human origin and they both had the same blood type (AB). The scientist also said that the chemical compound is the same as fresh blood. If it would have come from a cadaver, the compound of the blood would have rapidly altered through decay, so there is no chance of a fraud. The flesh and blood was returned to the Church of St. Francis in Lanciano, Italy, and can still be seen there today.

The actual host itself is just unleavened bread. But this brings up an interesting point. If unleavened just means not risen, and Jesus is the bread of life, then unleavened bread that has been consecrated is "not risen Jesus." The only time Jesus was not risen was when he was here on earth with us. So, he comes back to earth in every mass, so we can eat his flesh and have eternal life.

Martin Luther, one of the leaders of the Protestant Reformation wrote, "Who, but the devil, hath granted such a license of wrestling with words of Holy Scripture? Who ever read in the Scriptures, that my body is the same as the sign of my body? Or, that is is the same as it signifies? What language in the world ever spoke so? It is only than the devil, that imposeth upon us by these fanatical men. . . Not one of the Fathers, though so numerous, ever spoke as the Sacramentarians: not one of them ever said, It is only bread and wine; or, the body and blood of Christ is not there present. Surely it is not credible, nor possible, since they often speak, and repeat their sentiments, that they should never (if they thought so) not so much as once say or let slip these words: It is bread. . . or the body of Christ is not there, especially it being of great importance, that men should not be deceived. Certainly in so many fathers, and in so many writings, the negative might be found in at least one of them, had they thought that the body and blood of Christ were not really present: but they are all of them unanimous" (Luther's Collected Works, Wittenburg Edition, no. 7, p.391).

My conclusions are this: Jesus Christ is truly present in the bread and wine. I have found this through much study of the Sacred Scriptures, the miracles that have happened regarding the body and blood of our Lord, and through writing of the Church fathers, including Martin Luther, a man who split from the Catholic Church. Just remember: our God is a truly awesome God. Only he could do something of this magnitude. Trust God and put your faith in him.

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Will The CCP Maintain Power?

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"I plunge my hand into the bottom of the globe and fish out my paper. 'Tree.' Tree? It's too easy. I learned how to draw a tree in second grade. I reach for another piece of paper. Mr. Freeman shakes his head. 'You have just chose your destiny; you can't change that,"(Page 1) Melinda Sordio, the main character in Laurie Hasle Anderson's novel Speak, must draw a tree to find her lost soul. Melinda thinks that a tree will be easy to draw but as she goes through a whole year have as a freshmen she learns lessons and life but more importantly she learns things about her self. As Melinda attempts to draw a tree she realizes that there is no "right way" to draw a tree but rather her tree drawing must come from her heart.

Throughout the book, Melinda is tormented by her memories and by most of the school students for an incident that occurred over summer vacation at Andy's Evans party. Melinda got drunk and was raped by a boy named Andy. When she calls the cops she ruins the party is ruined, everyone at school hates Melinda. No one knows that Melinda was raped. This tree project assigned to her is a whole year project. The various trees Melinda draws symbolize the stages in her recovery from the rape. They trace her emotional journey from hopelessness to healing.

"I've been painting water colors of trees that have been hit by lightning. I try to paint so they are nearly dead but not totally."(Page 0-1) The first tree Melinda tries to draw is a tree that was hit by lightning. This symbolizes Melinda's feelings at the time. The lightning symbolizes Andy and Melinda is the tree. When struck by the lightning the tree is almost obliterated but it still has some life left in it. The same with Melinda, her mind and spirit are almost obliterated but there is still some hope for life. The lightning further more symbolizes Andy because lightning is violent, sudden and destructive. Same for the rape, it is violent sudden and it is also destructive. Though she doesn't share her emotions and feelings with anyone, drawing her project is like a therapy for her. She expresses her emotions through her drawings.

"I take out a page of notebook paper and a pen and doodle a tree, my second-grade version. Hopeless. I crumple it into a ball and take out another sheet. How hard can it be to put a tree on a piece of paper?" (Page ) Melinda's second attempt at a tree ends up a failure. After trying to draw a simple second-grade tree, she realizes that this is going to be harder that it looks. This tree that Melinda draws is a "giving up tree". This symbolizes a lot in Melinda's journey to inner peace. After the first tree Melinda drew there was hope, but in this drawing, it is like she has given up completely and there is little hope evident. The situation at school is getting worse and everyone is ridiculing Melinda. To make this even worse her parents do nothing but yell at her. Instead of sitting down and asking what is the matter, they keep on yelling at her. They are completely oblivious to what is happening to Melinda. All these things are making Melinda feel this way, all these things are overwhelming Melinda. It looks like she is about to give up completely.

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This tree that she draws also represents the fact that Melinda is not being her self and that she is trying to change her self in order to cover up and forget about the rape. She draws the very simple tree that is without emotion and feeling. This shows something very important. This shows that she wants to forget about the rape and pretend like it never happened. This is evident in her drawing because from trees being hit by lightning to simple effortless trees shows that instead of solving the crisis that is bothering her; she would rather pretend it never happened. The problem with this is that if she just forgets about it then she'll never solve the problem and it will torment her the rest of her life.

"I have already ruined six linoleum blocks. I can see it in my head a strong old oak tree with a wide scarred trunk and thousands of leaves reaching to the sun." (Page 78) Next, Melinda experiments with linoleum to do her tree project. Melinda ends up using six linoleum blocks in order to complete her project. This effort to make her project look right symbolizes her effort to recover from the rape incident. She keeps on trying and trying, and when she fails she tries again. Her effort to forget is directly symbolic of her effort to make a complete tree. The only thing that is missing that it doesn't make it a complete tree is that it doesn't "breath". In Melissa's case, the only thing that is missing from her is her ability to speak. This is what is missing from her to make her complete.

In addition, the linoleum is directly symbolic of the process that she has to go through to recover from the incident that plagues her mind and soul. To make art out of linoleum, it takes a lot of time and it is an extremely hard task, the same with her recovery. Melinda's recovery process will be very difficult (considering that she doesn't have any friends or even family that will help her) and it will take a long time until she has gotten over the incident. Furthermore when you work with linoleum it is very unforgiving for once you mess up that is it, you can't fix it. You must start all over again. The same with Melinda, once she messes up in her recovery she can't go back and fix things. Also, as she is cutting away at the linoleum it is like she is cutting away at her old self because she is recovering. The cutting away from the linoleum symbolizes how she is cutting away and recuperating from the rape.

"A sound explodes from me. 'NNNOOO!!!" (Page 14) At this point Melissa is trapped in her closet, the place that has always kept her safe, with Andy Evans. Once again she is about to be attacked. The only thing that could save her now is her voice. As soon as she tries to scream nothing comes out. Then when Andy starts to get more aggressive Melinda screams as loud as she can. She then smashes the mirror with her turkey bone sculpture. The mirror shatters and subsequently Melinda reaches and picks up a triangular piece of glass and points it at Andy's throat. Andy backs off and the lacrosse team comes to the rescue Melinda. This gives back Melinda's ability to communicate and to speak with others. As a result of this Melinda's reputation with others changes. The people at school now think differently about Melinda and that it wasn't her fault at the party.

"I slam it against Maya's poster. I hear a crunch." In this scene Melinda has managed to recover from the incident. In this scene Melinda smashes here mirror with her poster on it. This small scene actually symbolizes a lot. The act of breaking the mirror represents Melinda freeing her-self from her old-self. In other words Melinda has liberated her-self from the quiet, and scared person she used to be and now she is able to do everything she used to do before the rape. Also the reason Melinda put up the poster of Maya was because she was afraid and scared to look in the mirror to see her self, so she put up Maya in place of the mirror. Maya was some one that Melinda dreamed of becoming. But when she smashed the mirror it was like she wasn't afraid to accept who she was and she got the courage back that she lost since the rape.

Once Melinda repossessed her ability to speak, attempts one last time to draw her tree. This time she gets her tree to be alive and the more importantly breathe. "My tree is definitely breathing; little shallow breaths like it just shot up through the ground this morning." When Melinda said this it was like she was talking about herself because her soul is like that tree she drew, it just started to breath. Also her tree is like no other that she's drew before. This tree is a tree that has both brown and green leaves; it is a thin tree with skinny branches. This tree she drew is metaphorical for her personality and charter in many aspects. First the green and brown leaves symbolize her emotions. Her emotions are half dead and half alive because in one sense apart of her has died due to the rape but in another sense she recovered from the rape and is now exploring a new life once again.

All in all, this entire incident was both a lose and a gain for Melinda. Through out her whole year of school Melinda learns a lot about her self and all these lessons she has acquired will help her deal with problems in the future and the incident she has experienced will most likely not happen again.

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The guildford four

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After the incredulity and then the euphoria of release from jail, the four people who had served 15 years for the Guildford pub bombings in 174 had to find a life. Three are now married with families but the years of adjustment have been painful. Ten years ago today the only thing that mattered was when Lord Lane, the lord chief justice, pronounced those magic words the convictions of Gerry Conlon, Carole Richardson, Paul Hill and Paddy Armstrong were unsafe and unsatisfactory. Conlon, a wild and wiry bundle of suppressed energy with delirious sisters on either arm, was the only one to face the crowds outside the front door of the Old Bailey. He punched the air in defiance and ran the wrong way down the street. Just like a confused animal, his lawyer thought. Conlon was then 5. Richardson, 17 at the time of her arrest, was shocked and weak at the knees. She and her former boyfriend, Armstrong, disappeared separately out the back. She just wanted to hide. Hill, who was still serving life for a murder in Northern Ireland, was taken to Crumlin Road prison in Belfast and bailed two days later. Theirs was the first of the momentous Irish miscarriage of justice cases which convulsed the criminal justice system and led to a rare royal commission. The crisis of confidence was encapsulated in one of Lord Lanes concluding remarks The officers must have lied. The ramifications - on disclosure of evidence, the right to silence and to jury trials, the credibility of the police, the quality of forensic services and the question of racism - are still reverberating. Psychological effectsFor the four people who had lost their youth, a personal trauma of equal intensity lay in store. As Gareth Peirce, Gerry Conlons solicitor, put it They come out with no money and no counselling. They have no references, its difficult to open a bank account, you cant get a mortgage. They have no GP. You dont belong. Little things - the pace of life and the gadgetry invented since 174 - caused panic. They found the noise of traffic and crossing the road frightening. Youre inadequate, youve no skills, said Conlon. But the most serious effects of 15 years in prison, most of them in category A, was psychological. Three years ago Adrian Grounds, a psychiatrist at the Institute of Criminology at Cambridge, examined Conlon and four of the Birmingham Six who were released in 11. He found that they were suffering from irreversible, persistent and disabling post-traumatic stress syndrome. He compared their mental state with that of brain damaged accident victims or people who had suffered war crimes. It often made them impossible to live with, he said. Some have fared worse than the others. After some manic trans-Atlantic campaigning for the Birmingham Six and other victims of injustice, Conlon descended into a cocaine haze, from which he is only now emerging. Ive been off it since last November, he says. He is on the dole in a one bedroom flat on the south coast, and seeking the counselling that he realises he needed long ago. For a while the cocaine took away the nightmares. Armstrong, 48, tried to settle into work but got caught up in the temptations of drink and gambling. He is now married and living in Dublin with a child. Hes unemployed and friends say just coping. Hill, 44, who had his Belfast conviction quashed, famously married Courtney Kennedy, the daughter of Robert Kennedy who was assassinated in 168. They live with their three-year-old child in Washington. But their marriage has had its strains to the extent that they sought help. Richardson, who has kept the lowest profile, has probably emerged the strongest, despite eight years on category A in grim Durham prison. She is happily married with an eight-year-old daughter, says her solicitor Alastair Logan. All four received ex-gratia compensation payments after several years negotiating with the governments assessor, Sir David Calcutt. Three have agreed a settlement of around £500,000 but Hills final figure has still to be arrived at. All the solicitors believe Calcutt has been mean with his awards. Oliver Kelly, Hills Belfast lawyer, describes him as stingy, uncooperative and inaccessible. Mr Kelly says His assessments fall far short of what a reasonable person would expect. In these cases there should be no penny pinching. Mrs Peirce says his miserly approach was the final insult. Mr Logan, for Richardson, believes that Calcutt should have awarded punitive damages. The case and those that followed contributed to a change of culture in the system. Police and forensic science witnesses were no longer considered infallible. Confessions alone meant risky justice. There was a recognition that terrible mistakes had and could be made. Prosecutors had to be more open and judges more sensitive. The high point in this sea change, it is widely held, was the 1 court of appeal judgment in the Judith Ward M6 coach bombing case which delivered a searing indictment of police, crown lawyers and scientists for their failure to disclose relevant material. Twelve soldiers and members of their families, returning to Catterick camp in North Yorkshire, were killed in the explosion. Retrograde stepsThe Conservative governments response was Lord Runcimans royal commission which reported in 1 - ironically the year of the bungled Stephen Lawrence murder investigation and the appointment of the reactionary home secretary Michael Howard. Its key proposal, a criminal cases review commission, was up and running three years later. Despite early criticism of its lack of independent investigative powers, its robust approach in sending many cases back to the court of appeal has been applauded. Chris Mullin, now environment minister and the former chairman of the home affairs select committee which championed the Birmingham Six, said the commission was a large step forward which had to be hard fought for. Most of the changes have been undoubtedly for the better. But some of the other laws that have flown from its recommendations have been seen as retrograde. Defence barristers and civil liberties groups unanimously criticised the erosion of the right to silence. A judge can now draw adverse inferences from a defendants refusal to answer police questions, although Mr Mullin argued that it was not unreasonable to expect a person to give an account of themselves if they were innocent. The critics also condemned disclosure rules that say the defence has to reveal its case while the prosecution retains the right to hand over only what it thinks is relevant. Mrs Peirce says The royal commission was illiberal. Things have got worse now as any defence lawyer will tell you. John Wadham, the director of Liberty, added The Guildford Four were the first people detained under the prevention of terrorism act and it is disappointing that this legislation remains in place, despite the peace process and the governments commitment in opposition not to renew it. In addition, the governments proposal to remove the defendants right to elect jury trial in either way cases will add to the number of miscarriages of justice.

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Green Party Politics

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The Green Alternative

In the annals of "mainstream" America, the Green Party is known quite well for the role they played in "spoiling" the election of 000 for the Democratic Party. However, it is imperative that informed citizens note that the Greens were simply garnering votes from liberals and Greens (of course) that felt Al Gore was far too moderate and George W. Bush was far too conservative for their precious votes. I felt it was vital to understand more about the Green Party than the sometimes-comical assertion about Ralph Nader being a thorn in Al Gore's side. To my previously general understanding, they present alternatives to the industrial-commercial-consumerist development that has run rampant throughout the same "mainstream" America that was mentioned before. The purpose of this paper is to express what I learned about the Green Party along with how I felt about what I discovered.

The Greens are probably best known for their principle of "ecological wisdom" which contends that human beings are a component of nature rather than a separate body that operates outside of nature (4). The Green Party feels that an ecological balance must be maintained and there has to be resource limits placed on society and the planet at large (4). The Greens want to have a sustainable society that ensures that the people that come about in the future will benefit from the present actions rather than suffer from environmental exploitation (4). With this in mind, Greens admonish industrial agriculture and endorse agricultural activities that replenish the soil, all while working toward an economy that is efficient with respect to the use of energy ().

Within this same vein, the Greens are adamant about executing actions in the present-day with the long-term future in mind. By having a requisite future focus toward sustainability, the goals of the Greens are vigilantly pointed toward protecting the earth's precious natural resources, carefully disposing of created waste, while expanding upon a sustainable economic base that doesn't require incessant extension and expansion for continued existence (). The Greens believe that the push for immediate earnings should be offset by guaranteeing that economic development, contemporary technology, and monetary procedures all are held accountable by the fact that future generations will become heir to the consequences of today's actions (). This is encompassed in a belief that individuals should be personally and globally responsible in that while they improve themselves they also should boost the world's ecological equilibrium and communal synchronization (). This pertains to efforts that seek to promote peace, economic fairness, along with the overall well being of earth.

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Along these same lines, the Greens don't believe that the customary centralization of wealth and power in America and the world is a significant factor in societal and economic unfairness, militarization, and environmental devastation (4). That being the case, the Greens support a reorganization of economic, political, and social establishments away from an arrangement that's dominated by and regularly presents advantages for a prevailing minority, toward a "more democratic, less bureaucratic system" (4). Resolutions should be set in motion by individuals and communities to ensure that the civil rights of all citizens will be guarded and promoted (4).

What's more the Greens feel that the economics of the United States must become vital, but also sustainable with enough jobs and a reasonable standard of living for all people; all while preserving the world's ecological stability (). The Greens feel that work should not only be consequential, but also distinguishing so that a "living wage" can be earned and garnered by every individual who works for it (). Returning to the community level, Greens see economic development as a mission that necessitates paying attention to workers' rights and the environment with deep-seated citizen contribution in the designing of such a system that ultimately seeks to better the overall "quality of life" (). This means that Greens support companies that are independently owned and operated while being socially responsible on a broad level (). Moreover, the Greens are steadfastly dedicated to supporting co-operatives and communal enterprises that allocate resources and authority to people through democratic involvement ().

With regard to the commercialism and industrialism that runs rampant in America, the Greens feel that there's a pervading global corporate power dominating politics and government in the U.S. As a result, democracy has been compromised at the expense of the very people living within the boundaries of the U.S. and inevitably around the world (). The Greens feel it's clear that the gigantic multinational corporate conglomerates have created provocations and ultimatums and forced them upon the government, the people, and the common consumer (4). The Greens are aware of the inherent marketing madness that creates needs that didn't exist while taxpaying voters bear the burden of political, ecological, and social costs (). Such consumerism and stratification within the corporate framework has put inequality on egregiously stable footing domestically and abroad ().

For me, it was clear how the Green Party philosophy fit within the framework of many liberal progressives. Both the Green party and such groups feel that "commercial societies promote individualism and wealth inequality" (1). The Green Party also condemns corporate globalization as it retrieves the resources of other nations, and Bodley agrees, "The culture of consumption would probably consider another culture's resources to be under-exploited and to use this as a justification for appropriating them" (1). Bodley writes, "In large scale cultures, central political rulers take production and distribution functions away from households and individuals and promote subsistence intensification, new technology, and population growth to enhance their social power" (1). This sounds quite a bit like the Green party's views regarding the corporate relationship to the federal government, along with the revocation of worker's rights and self-sustainability socially, economically, and ecologically.

I feel that the Green Party is far more progressive in its views than the large scale Republican and Democrat parties. These two latter parties are recipients of large corporate donations (soft money) and this fact has got to scare anyone liberal or conservative. Moreover, I feel that the Green Party is future focused which is inherently essential in these ecologically volatile times. I don't feel the Green Party splits any votes or impedes upon the Democratic Party because the voter turnout in the United States is pathetic anyway. Additionally, I feel that the Green Party's focus on grassroots democracy is more constitutionally proficient than any form of politicking that the Democrats and Republicans can imagine.

The founding fathers designed this form of government to avoid the sort of sick aristocracy that has evolved today. In other words, when they sought to split away from King George they were attempting to rid themselves of a dominant, exploitive ruling monarchy, but through crony capitalism and corrupt politics; we nearly have the same system today. True, they wanted individuals to have the ability to assess wealth, but not at the expense of other individuals while simultaneously affecting egalitarian politics.

For me, I feel the Green Party gets to the root of the issue in that it seeks to return to a pure democracy that proceeds uncorrupted by commercial, corporate, and consumeristic ideals. The world is not the United States' oyster; it is a dignified, beautiful, and diverse place that cannot be pillaged simply because of the innate desire to increase GNP. The Green Party values communities and I feel that within that paradigm the party intrinsically values the individual, and for me, that motivates me within the political, social, and economic realms. What's more, as clichd as it might sound; I believe the Green Party is the one political institution that unwaveringly longs to better the planet while advancing the human race. And for me, that makes all the difference.

Bibliography

(1)Bodley, John H. Victims of Progress, 4th ed. Mayfield Publishing Company Mountain View, CA. 1.

()Wissenburg, M.L.J. Green Liberalism. UCL Press May, 18

()Bahro, Rudolph. Building the Green Movement. New Society Publishing May 186.

(4)Sale, Kirkpatrick, Eric Foner. The Green Revolution The American Political and Environmental Movement. Hill and Wang Publishing August, 1

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The Life of a Knight

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The Life of a Knight

Every boy of noble birth had to undergo many years of training before he could become a knight. The training began when he was just a young boy.( around the age of 7 years ) The young boy sometimes received training at home but usually he went to live with some well known lord of great wealth. Every important noble had several young lads living in his home as pages.

The pages helped the ladies of the court in everyway they could and they also learned many things from them. The ladies would teach them how to sing and dance. They would teach them how to compose music and play it on the harp. They also taught them how to make themselves useful and agreeable at all times. The ladies told them many stories of knights and heroes and those that could read taught the young pages how to read.

Many things were expected of a page and manners was high on that list. They were taught that when they enter their lord's place they would say "God's speed" and cheerfully greet everyone in the room. They weren't to rush in and be rude instead they were to enter slowly with their head up and they were to kneel on one knee in front of their lord. They weren't to sit down and they were to be ready to stand until they were bidden to sit. They were to keep their hands and feet still at all times.

The manners to be used at the dinner table were also important. When their lord went to get his meat the page should be ready to fetch him water and hold a towel for him until he is done. They would stand there until their lord bid them sit but then still they would always be prepared to serve him with clean hands. They weren't to hang their heads over their dishes and they weren't to drink with a full mouth. If they ate with another then they weren't to be greedy. They would give the nicest pieces to another. When the meal was over they were to rise without laughing or fooling around and they were to return to their lord's table. They would stand there until grace had been said and the meal was officially over. Then they were to go and fetch water and a cloth and pour water over their lord's hands.

In their spare time the pages played games and did daily exercises in the castle yard. A popular sport they played, which was also considered as training for warfare, was tilting at the quintain. The quintain was a figure of a knight made out of wood. He was holding a shield in front of him and in his right hand he held a club. The pivot was fixed to a pole and it would turn around if touched. Each page would mount a horse and they would dash towards the figure at a gallop. They would try to strike the dummy with a lance. If they struck it in the center it was considered a good job. If they missed though and struck the dummy to the side, it would whirl around and strike the page with its club!

For 7 years or more the young boys lived in the castle as a page. After that they became a squire which was the lords devoted attendant who served him in many ways. The squire would polish the armour until it was bright and shining and they cared for the horses. They waited upon their lord at mealtime. They carried water for them for hand washing, they carved their meat and filled their cup. They rode with their lord to battle and to tournaments and they carried their weapons and their shield. If their lord was unhorsed in a tournament, the squire would remount him or if he was injured the squire would carry him to safety and care for his wounds.

In the castle yard the squire would practise warlike accomplishments and manly exercises. They learned to ride on a horse's back and how to hold a lance properly while managing a shield at the same time. They were always courteous and helpful to the ladies of the castle.

When a squire had finally mastered his duties or "won his spurs" his day of knighting would arrive. He could win his spurs by performing some deed proving his worthiness such as showing courage on the battle field in protecting his lord.

The knighting would take place at the castle and it would be accompanied by a solemn religious ceremony in which each part would have a significance. First the knight to be took a bath to cleanse himself blemishes from his past life. Then he would lie down for a moment upon a bed to signify "the rest God gives to his followers, his brave knights." Then he put on a snow white tunic symbolizing " that he must keep his flesh from stain if he would ever hope to reach heaven." Over that went a scarlet robe to symbolize " he must be ready to pour out his blood for the holy church." Lastly, he puts on a black coat " to remind him by its sombre hue that he must die."

After a long fast the young squire spent a whole night alone in a church lit only by a single lamp. He knelt in prayer in front of an altar on which his new armour and weapons were laid. This made these articles worthy to God. In the morning he took the Holy Sacrament and a priest instructed him of his future duties as a knight. The squire took the solemn vows of chivalry which bound him to be brave and honourable, to right the wrong, to protect the women, to help those in need and to show mercy to the weak and the defenceless.

Later that morning he went to the courtyard where many other knights and ladies were assembled to view the knighting. First came the ceremony of putting on his armour. The lord, who was the godfather in chivalry, belted on the sword of the soon to be knight, fastened on his golden spurs and presented him with his shield. Then the young squire knelt as his lord struck him lightly on the shoulder with the flat of his sword. The lord pronounced, "In the name if God, St. Michael, and St. George, I dub thee knight. Be loyal brave and true." The squire was now a knight.

A groomed horse with a bridle engraved with gold, silver and jewels was waiting for the knight and was presented to him as his charger. Wearing his new armour, the knight would give an exhibition of his skill of riding and his use of weapons. Then he would ride over the drawbridge to seek adventure with his faithful squire. The knight would look for some deed to prove his valour and to win some maiden's love.

A true knight was expected to be loyal to the church and to their overlord, to be just and pure, to speak only the truth, to be fair to everyone even his enemies and to know no fear. His honour was the most important quality. Many knights were unable to live up to these expectations. If they broke the vows or if they were guilty of some grave breach of knightly honour, they were publicly disgraced. Their shield was hung upside and smeared with paint and Heralds came by and one by one they ripped his armour off. His shield was then broken into pieces, his spurs ripped off and his sword broken over his head. Then the knight was placed in a coffin and dragged to the church. There a priest held a funeral service for them as if they were dead. The knights were considered dead to honour.

 

Bibliography

Hartman,Gertrude. Medieval Days and Ways. New YorkMacMillian Publishing Co. Inc,165.

Kesheshyan, Gevork. "The Middle Age-Knights" http//www.burbankk1.ca.us/luther/mages/gevsha/mackinght.html. July, 6 16.

"The Middle Ages" http.//www.askjeeves.com17

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Unitar

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UNITAR was established in 165 as an autonomous body within the UN . It is headed by an Executive Director. The Institute is supported by voluntary contributions from governments and also non-governmental sources

UNITAR has the following functions

•To conduct training programmes in multilateral diplomacy and international cooperation for diplomats accredited to the United Nations and national officials involved in work related to United Nations activities.

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•To carry out a wide range of training programmes in the field of social and economic development.

•To carry out result-oriented research, in particular, research on and for training and to develop pedagogical materials including distance learning training packages, work books, as well as software and video training packs.

•To establish and strengthen cooperation with other inter-governmental organizations, faculties and academic institutions, in particular for the development of research on and for training.

Intruduction

UNITAR is an autonomous body within the United Nations with the mandate to enhance the effectiveness of the UN through training and research. To meet this aim, UNITAR provides training to assist countries in meeting the economic and social challenges of the 1st century; conducts research to explore effective training and capacity building approaches; and forms partnerships with other UN agencies, governments and non-governmental organizations for the development and implementation of training and capacity building programmes to meet the needs and requests of member States, particularly developing countries and countries in transition. Each year, UNITAR reaches out to a large number of individuals and institutions in member States as well as staff of Permanent Missions to the United Nations.

As an autonomous organ of the United Nations, UNITAR enjoys a certain flexibility and scope for initiative. The Institute operates by maintaining a constant dialogue with donor and recipient countries in the setting and execution of its tasks. This increases accuracy in the identification of the needs of member States and makes for a more imaginative approach to meeting those needs as well as giving a sense of ownership to the recipient parties. The Institute is funded entirely from voluntary contributions, a fact that has helped forge its identity although at the same time limiting its ability to answer all the training requests received.

During the last decade, UNITAR has developed a particular vision of training characterized by its institutional setting and its diverse and inter-disciplinary human resource base. Training and capacity building have become the main objective of the Institute since the beginning of its restructuring. Programmes are designed in the light of clearly identified needs and implemented creatively to assist partners in adapting to the globalization of issues such as dispute resolution, environmental management, trade and finance. New models of apprenticeship in specialized fields are becoming increasingly important. These competences are built on individual and collective experiences and mature reflection on lessons learned.

UNITAR no longer carries out pure research, concentrating for the past decade on applied research, closely linked to training and falling into two main categories country-based research and research used in training. In the area of country-based research, UNITARs activities are designed to equip national teams with the knowledge, skills and tools necessary to undertake their own research. Activities include the provision of training as well as post-training assistance to ensure that the country-based research can then be applied.

UNITAR also undertakes research to facilitate improvement and innovation in training methods. Evaluation of its country-based programmes and training events helps UNITAR to ensure that lessons learned are applied to new initiatives. Pilot projects are another means to test innovative training and capacity building approaches. UNITAR also employs traditional research on training or pedagogical methods to determine the best means for achieving training objectives. For example, as part of its training and capacity building programmes, UNITAR has developed a range of distance learning training packages some of which are available on-line.

Within the new framework of international cooperation, the importance of the training component in the development process has increased. The requests from developing countries and countries with economies in transition are constantly increasing. Currently, UNITAR organizes some 10 different programmes, fellowships, seminars and workshops every year, benefiting in excess of 5,500 participants over five continents.UNITAR looks forward to working with partners both from within and outside the UN system for the continued improvement of its programmes and methodologies in order to ensure that the Institute can effectively address the emerging needs and challenges faced by countries and their citizens.

Board of Trustees

Ms. Agnes Y. AGGREY-ORLEANS (Ghana)

Mr. Munir AKRAM (Pakistan)

Mr. Gustavo ALBIN (Mexico)

Ms. Rasha Hamood AL-JABIR AL-MUBARAK AL-SABAH (Kuwait)

Ms. Celina Maria ASSUMPCAO DO VALLE PEREIRA (Brazil)

Mr. Anders BJURNER (Sweden)

Mr. Jean-Marc BOULGARIS (Switzerland)

Mr. Bernard FAUTRIER (Monaco)

Ms. Nala GABR MOHAMED GABR ALI (Arab Republic of Egypt)

Mr. David A. HAMBURG (USA)

Mr. Omar HILALE (Morocco)

Mr. Yuji IKEDA (Japan)

Mr. Mukesh KAPILA (United Kingdom)

Mr. Bernard KESSEDJIAN (France)

Mr. Milos KUZVART (Czech Republic) Chief Arthur C.I. MBANEFO (Nigeria)

Mr. Sipho George NENE (South Africa)

Mr. Nico SCHRIJVER (Netherlands)

Mr. SHA Zukang (China)

Mr. Leonid A. SKOTNIKOV (Russian Federation)

Mr. Ernst SUCHARIPA (Austria)

Reports and Documentation

The Work Programme of UNITAR comes out every two years. It is the principal public information brochure of the Institute and is circulated widely by post and distributed at conferences worldwide. This year, for the first time, the brochure is available on line in PDF format. The Work Programme is not intended to be a catalogue of the upcoming programmes but rather a short description of the approaches and contents of UNITARs training programmes.

The Statute of UNITAR is also available on PDF. This document constitutes the basis of UNITARs legal existence, setting out the purposes and functions of the Institute as decided by the General Assembly resolution 14 (XVII) of 11 December 16 and taking into account amendments and revisions since then

The Report of the Executive Director to the General Assembly is also produced every two years and is submitted to the attention of the Secretary-General. The report provides an account of the progress of the Institutes activities over the preceeding biennium. It is printed by the United Nations in New York and is translated into all six languages of the UN. The English version of the last report is available here in PDF format

Climate Change Program

Supporting country driven capacity building initiatives and serving as a rapid and efficient implementation tool for the work of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change with GEF Implementing Agencies and other bilateral donors.

International Affairs Management

Offering practice-oriented training courses in public international law, international relations and diplomatic skills to government officials, university teachers and NGO representatives from around the world

Finantial Department

Training lawyers and non-lawyers in the legal aspects of external debt management through short-duration regional seminars and workshops, online training courses as well as development and dissemination of best practices and training packages. The debt management programme is also offering e-learning courses.

Foreign Economic Relations

Providing training programmes to public sector officials to enhance their knowledge and tools for managing public finances, negotiating loans and trade agreements .

Woman and Children Under Conflict

Heightening awareness of the particular difficulties and needs of women and children in conflict or post-conflict zones, organizing training courses targeting international and local civilian staff members employed by UN Peacekeeping Missions.

Corespondence Instructions

In

Peacekeeping Operations

Established in 15, this programme provides distance learning courses. All training material is provided in printed text books consisting of a series of lessons and culminating in an end of course examination

Chemicals and Waste Management

A variety of programmes and services support training and capacity building efforts to strengthen the foundations for chemicals management at the country level, and assist countries in implementing national priorities and relevant international agreements

Please note that this sample paper on unitar is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on unitar, we are here to assist you. Your cheap research papers on unitar will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Morality

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Morality

In "Bartleby" by the following definition offered by the Oxford English Dictionary, none of the characters employed by the narrator qualify as highly moral characters; "Moral 1)concerned with the principles of right and wrong behavior and the goodness or badness of human character. )conforming to accepted standards of behavior". Turkey's immorality is used as a basis of comparison in order to show that Bartleby does not even attempt to be moral nor does he have any potential to be moral.

 

In Turkey's case the author clearly outlines his flaws as a character, and as a nuisance to any employer. Turkey does not seem to be concerned with how his employer feels but rather makes a routine of getting drunk and obnoxious every afternoon. He is a very loud messy drunk and does not make up pretexts for it. Turkey's character is important in contrast with Bartleby because he seems to be everything Bartleby isn't at first. Here is how the narrator begins his depiction of these two characters " not that he was absolutely idle or averse to business, then ;far from it. The difficulty was that he was apt to be altogether too energetic" (4). He is loud, opinionated, rude, and counter productive at times; when Bartleby was " pallidly neat, pitiably respectable and incurably forlorn" (). We will see that the narrator makes this comparison to show that appearances are deceiving in the case of Bartleby, and that his shift in character makes Turkey seems almost normal in the end.

Besides serving as a comparison to Bartleby, the portrayal of Turkey and the way his incompetence is dealt with, provides the audience with a glimpse of the weakness of his employer. We see this in the way the narrator deals with Turkey in his sad attempt to fire him. It is obvious that he has never learned how to be strict or demanding, and this scenario concludes with the following statement

" At all events. I saw that go he would not. So I made up my mind to let him stay" (5). Instead of putting his foot down, he compromises with Turkey and goes out of his way to make the situation work. It seems like the situation is out of his control when in fact he is the one with authority. This harboring of Turkey's incompetence is a foreshadowing of similar instances in Bartleby's case.

In the literary sense, Bartleby and Turkey seem to be complete opposites. Bartleby is neat and reserved, efficient and respectable. In fact we see that this is one of the main reasons he was hired, to make up for the bad image of the other two scriveners, "I engaged him glad to have among my corps of copyists a man of so singularly sedate an aspect, which I thought might operate beneficially upon the flighty temper of Turkey, and the fiery one of Nippers" (). Yet when Bartleby shows his true colors and states his odd and irritating preferences, Turkey's flaws seem pale by comparison. As the story progresses, Bartleby refuses to comply. At first he refuses to help proof- read his documents, then he refuses to run any errands and finally he "prefers" not to do any work at all.

Just like in the case of Turkey, the employer tried to plead, and attempted to be stern with Bartleby, but he ends up compromising more every day.

In this aspect Turkey and Bartleby are similar to a certain extent, but the odd behavior of Bartleby surpasses any eccentric display seen by Turkey or Nippers. One would even say that the flaws displayed by Nippers, another odd employee, and Turkey were normal human imperfections compared to those displayed by Bartleby. The author built up Turkey to be as odd as we might imagine a coworker, and then introduced Bartleby who puzzles us beyond imagination. His refusal to do work at first is comparable to the temporary lack of work done every day by the other two scriveners, but when Bartleby "prefers" not to work at all, his character surpasses all expectations.

If the lack of moral conduct was not present in Turkey to show the narrator's tolerance for such behavior, his attitude and tolerance toward Bartleby would be more random and would not fit in the story at all. The author built on the characters of the narrator and Turkey to give the audience mixed feelings about Bartleby. Also he did so to show that even most deplorable, inappropriate behavior can be found excuse for. Personally, I felt sorry and angry with Bartleby at the same time, because I saw him through the eyes of the narrator. Since he had given Turkey and Nippers chances to fit into his office life, the narrator felt the need to do so with Bartleby even though his case was more severe and unusual. In response he ended up going to unusual lengths to accommodate Bartleby in order to make himself think he did everything he could to help the situation. The greater the demands made by the scrivener, the greater the compromise, resulting in the "boss" moving his offices. This is a glimpse of the ongoing denial and self assurance that Bartleby is to be pitied going on in the narrator's mind.

Even so, for the most part, I regarded Bartleby and his own ways. Poor fellow! Thought I, he means no mischief; it is plain he intends no insolence; his aspect sufficiently evinces that his eccentricities are involuntary. He is useful to me. I can get along with him. If I turn him away, the chances are he will fall in with some less indulgent employer, and then he would be rudely treated, and perhaps driven forth miserably to starve. Yes. Here I can cheaply purchase a delicious self- approval.(15)

Bartleby is not only nonchalant in his refusal to adapt to moral behavior and normal office expectations, but he doesn't even attempt to do so in light of low standards presented by his two coworkers. Turkey's purpose in the story is to show that Bartleby was not only odd compared to the outside life, but even compared to the non existent guidelines in this office environment.

Like Turkey, Bartleby takes advantage of his employer's lack of a backbone, only he does this to a greater extent. We see Turkey appeal to his soft spot for their age similarity, "this appeal to my fellow feeling was hardly to be resisted" (5). Bartleby does not even think to ask for help, pity or accept it when offered to him, instead he demands it. The way he does this is inconceivable to me as a reader; not only does he refuse to run errands or do work at all, but he imposes himself and lives in the office without permission. It is interesting to see that even the characters that seem flawed and detached at the beginning of the story offer to put Bartleby in his place, showing that even though similar at first the three are worlds apart.

Even though Turkey does not seem as a moral person by definition, when compared to Bartleby he posses human characteristics that make him more likely to conform to standards or moral requirements than he seems at first glance. Even when incarcerated, Bartleby still has the same passive attitude that he has throughout the story, showing that he has no desire to change even when his life is at stake. Bartleby doesn't eat, drink, get mad or show any kind of emotion therefore he cannot show morality if he does not posses humanity, this is why Turkey is closer to being a moral person than Bartleby can even be capable of.

Herman Melville's Bartleby and The Lightning- Rod Man. New York 168, Penguin 60s; 1-48

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Asian american

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Growing up in the United States as an Asian American, I was never really fully aware of the differences between my classmates and I until I entered middle school and high school. Being the only person in my family to be a citizen at birth, my family always stressed that I could be anything I wanted to be, including the President. I did not take it seriously and never wanted to become the President, but I grew up with the mentality that I was like every other American. It never occurred to me that Americans should all have the same physical features. My friends, while growing up, were mostly white with a few minorities here and there. I became friends with whomever I liked. Even though I didn't start off speaking English fluently, the language barrier did not prevent me from becoming best friends with a Caucasian. The very first incident that ever made me wonder about my identity was in kindergarten. One of my peers and I were waiting in line for the bathroom and she turned around and asked me why my nose is so flat. All I could say in return was why her nose was so pointy. When I got home that afternoon, I asked my mother the same question – why is my nose so flat? I never thought so until she had pointed it out. My mother explained that not everyone's features were the same. Some people have flat noses, others have pointy, big, small, or round. Then I asked her why she had a flat nose too. She responded that many Asians have flat noses, with which I responded, "But I'm not Asian." My mother then proceeded to explain that I am both Asian and American. After that day, right before I went to bed, I would pinch my nose in hopes of making my not so flat and being more American. Looking back at that event, I do not think I ever really understood what had happened. I still do not think it was a big deal. Children are often curious and more straightforward. I do not believe it was a racist remark, just an innocent one; but it had affected me without me realizing it.

As I grew older and entered into high school, I became prouder of being who I was, an Asian American. I began to have more and more Asian friends, although I still did have Caucasian friends as well. I also became involved with YOCA – Young Organization of Chinese Americans. I noticed that my school was very cliquey. If you were not part of the crowd, do not even think about going over and sitting at their tables. Many of the Asians sat together at lunch and that they separated themselves from the rest of the school. I became drawn into this social group and became more "Asianized" in the process. It was at this time that I became fully aware of my social group membership and that that affected the way one was treated in society. I remember one day at lunchtime, a freshman Caucasian student approached a senior Asian student and asked him to go to another table. The Asian student refused to move and the Caucasian student spewed out a whole bunch of racial slurs and the Asian student then punched the Caucasian student. A fight broke out and was eventually stopped by the lunch ladies and both were sent up to the Principal's office. Many people saw and heard what had happened between the two and knew that the Caucasian student had instigated the fight. By the end of the day, the entire Asian social group had heard what had happened. The Principal cleaned up the Caucasian student and sent him back to class while the Asian student had to stay and was punished for his actions. He was suspended from school for a few weeks. When we heard this, we were outraged that someone who said racial comments could get away with it. Granted the Asian student did not have to punch the Caucasian student, so in that sense, yes he should have been punished; however, the Caucasian student should also have been punished as well. Because he did not get punished, it came off that it was okay to say racial slurs because it is not something you could get in trouble for. Many of us were angry at the Principal's decision and felt that he was also being racist for letting the Caucasian student get away with what he did. The Asian student community got together and wrote a petition to the Principal about the incident. Although it did not do anything to make the Principal change his actions, it got the community together and made me very aware of my standing as an Asian American. I have always been taught to stand up for yourself and be proud of who you are. Yet when you stand up for yourself and try to protect your identity, you can get punished for it. It felt like because he was not white, he did not get the same rights as the other student; because he was not a model minority and did not just accept the racial comments, he was in the wrong. Many people had heard what the Caucasian student said and told the Principal, but the Principal seemed to let that behavior slide, as if it were okay or it was a Caucasians right to say such things. And Asians did not have the right to stand up and protect themselves from those comments. But if it had been reversed, the Caucasian student would have had those rights.

I remember a few years ago in 1999 a national controversial issue that affected the Chinese and Asian community and had many people very angry with the United States government. In 1999, Dr. Wen Ho Lee, a former nuclear scientist at Los Alamos Laboratories, was put in abusive solitary confinement for nine months because he was suspected of being a spy for the Communist Chinese. The government had little evidence for such a claim, only suspicions, yet it still made public pronouncements about Wen Ho Lee, damaging his reputation, placed him in solitary confinement and did not let him contact his family. Lee was manacled and kept in leg irons during his prison stay. Prior to his solitary confinement, FBI agents interviewed Lee and falsely told him that he had failed a polygraph test and urged him to confess. Whatever happened to innocent until proven guilty? Eventually, Lee was released after a plea agreement. How was it possible that if he was such a threat to the United State's national security that he would all of a sudden be released. The Asian Community across the United Stated worked together to protest this unfair act. People signed protest petitions to Janet Reno, sent money for his defense fund, showed up for rallies and demonstrations across the country, and signed a petition for a presidential pardon for Wen Ho Lee. I was among those in the community who was very angered and outraged at the government's actions. I took part in all the petitions and would have participated in the rallies and demonstrations had any of them been in New York. I did not understand how the United States government could just go around all the laws that it had come up and expect its citizens to follow when it did not even follow them.

Last semester, there was a big incident in the clothing industry. Abercrombie and Fitch attempted to appeal to more Asian Americans with a new line of t-shirts with ethnic caricatures and slogans. Many people found these t-shirts to be very offensive and reinforced negative stereotypes of Asian Americans. I was not very offended by these t-shirts, a little shocked that they would put these t-shirts on the shelves, but otherwise it was not a big deal to me. I can see how many Asian Americans were very offended though. Abercrombie and Fitch is a company that I have always associated as a "white clothing company." If you look at their catalogues and stores, you'll find that the models and people working there are about 90 percent of the time white. So I tend to think of the company as geared towards white people. I knew there were rallies everywhere and petitions to sign, but I chose to be passive and did not become involved in the situation. Sometimes I look back on the situation and think that perhaps I should have involved myself in the petitions and rallies. Sometimes I feel like I did not stand up for my social group and went along with the oppression.

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Looking back, I do not remember there ever being a time when I did not want to be a member of my social group. My parents have always taught me that being Chinese is a part of who I am, just like being American is also a part of who I am. I do not always feel like I solely belong to either social group, but I am part of both. I am proud of who I am because without that part of me, I would not be who I am today. I am aware of my Chinese culture and language, and at the same time, I am very assimilated into the American society. I understand where I stand in society – I have one foot in each door and I comfortable, proud, and lucky to be able to be part of both cultures. I can go to my place of origin and blend in there, get along with people there; at the same time, I can be in the United States and blend in here too. I am able to experience both worlds, something that would not be possible if I were not Asian American.

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Descarte

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In this essay, I propose to explain Descartes's system of methodic doubt. It will be necessary to look at his thoughts throughout his work in "The meditations". I will also show how Descartes subjected to doubt, all that could be possibly doubted, and arrived at the indubitable proposition: Cogito ergo sum, or I think, therefore I am. I will also explain how Descartes proceeded from this basis to prove the existence of God. Finally, I will conclude with how these two propositions together, for Descartes, established the certainty of human knowledge.

Descartes devised his system of methodic doubt in order to discover an indubitable belief, which he could use as a certain, and secure foundation as the basis for knowledge. For Descartes it was necessary to look inside himself at all the beliefs he once held as true, and subject them to the strongest of doubts. For the purpose of freeing himself from all preconceived opinions, he allowed himself to believe that all his past beliefs were false and imaginary, as he states in the first meditation: " So, for the purpose of rejecting all my opinions, it will be enough if I find in each of them at least some reason for doubt." (Cottingham 1984, p12). This provided Descartes with the easiest path by which to lead the mind away from the senses. In considering how far doubt can be extended, he begins by questioning his sense perception.

Descartes realises that everything that he has up till now accepted as true has been acquired either from the senses or through the senses. However there have been times when he has found that his senses can deceive, such as when objects may appear differently from various points of view, and that therefore it is highly probable that other things which appear certain through the senses may in reality be illusions. On further reflection, Descartes ponders the proposition of being asleep or awake. He wonders if this is something that cannot be doubted. However he soon realises that there have been times when he has been asleep and dreaming of the same experiences he had when awake. Descartes argues: "How often asleep at night, am I convinced of just such familiar events-that I am here in my dressing-gown, sitting by the fire-when in fact I am lying undressed in bed!" (Cottingham 1984, p13). Descartes comes to realise that dreaming and reality are so blurred that he cannot know if anything occurring is true or false and that therefore the external world may be an illusion. Descartes thus asserts that all the knowledge derived from the senses cannot be regarded as absolutely certain.

Descartes then considers the propositions of mathematics and the fact that a square has four sides and that two and three always makes five. This he perceives to be true whether he is asleep or awake and it appears that this cannot be doubted. On further consideration, however, Descartes considers the possibility that God may have brought it about that he just imagines these things are true, that God is making his mind incorrect when he adds two and three or counts the sides of a square. He further imagines that God is causing him to have sensations in his mind of the things he perceives around him. However when considering God as supremely good, Descartes finds it hard to believe that this supreme good being would deceive, therefore, Descartes invents the idea of an evil demon who is deceiving him, Descartes says of the evil demon: " I shall think that the sky, the air, the earth, colours, shapes, sounds and all external things are merely the delusions of dreams which he has devised to ensnare my judgment" (Cottingham 1984, p13). Descartes introduces this idea of the evil demon in order to prevent the return of the former beliefs previously called into doubt. Therefore at the end of the first meditation, Descartes is now in the position where he has put aside all his beliefs as not being fully certain. Thereafter within his second meditation he manages to limit the spread of doubt brought about by the evil demon hypothesis.

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Eventually, after consideration of all the beliefs he has doubted and set aside, Descartes realises that there is one thing he is doing all the time, and that is using his mind to think. For Descartes, by the very procedure of imagining an evil demon and the fact that he is thinking, establishes that he exists. This becomes for him the one sure and certain proposition on which to base his knowledge. Descartes considering the evil demon deceiving him states: "In that case I too undoubtedly exist, if he is deceiving me, and let him deceive me as much as he can, he will never bring it about that I am nothing so long as I think I am something." (Cottingham 1984, p17). This forms the basis of Descartes belief in the certainty that if nothing else, he exists. The point here is that it is impossible to doubt the truth of this proposition, therefore for Descartes the entire context of human knowledge consists upon this single proposition: "Cogito ergo sum", or, I think therefore I am. Even if he is dreaming, or God or an evil demon is trying to deceive him, his clearest perception of himself is as a thinking thing.

Descartes affirms this thinking self by the fact that he has sense and imagination, he wonders if there is anything, which corresponds to all this activity, and that now that he is certain of his own existence, if there is anything else of which he can be certain. This is how Descartes leaves at the end of the second meditation. He then comes back to this problem at the beginning of the third meditation and when he reconsiders the idea of the evil demon, in his mind he looks around and finds an idea of God, a supreme being and he wonders how the idea got there. In considering the idea of God as eternal, infinite and omnipotent Descartes discovers: " All these attributes are such that, the more carefully I concentrate on them, the less possible it seems that they could have originated from me alone. So from what has been said it must be concluded that God necessarily exists" (Cottingham 1984, p31).

Descartes proceeds in his demonstration of the existence of God by analysing the nature of thought, for Descartes there are three kinds of ideas: ideas, which he invents, ideas, which appear to be, and ideas, which are innate. For Descartes the most important ideas are innate which he finds in his mind, he knows that he is not the cause of his own idea of God because he thinks that any idea of an infinite all-knowing God transcends his own mental ability. God, therefore, causes the idea of God in his mind as he says: "This idea of a supremely perfect and infinite being is, I say, true in the highest degree; for although perhaps one may imagine that such a being does not exist, it cannot be supposed that the idea of such a being represents something unreal" (Cottingham 1984, p31). He concludes that God of whom he has an idea must possess all the perfection of which he cannot. Here he is trying to establish a definite proof of the existence of God and he discovers within his conscious mind this second certain proposition, namely God, exists.

Finally, Descartes considers whether material things exist. For Descartes, God guarantees that all the stuff in his mind must come from the stuff outside his mind and because God is not deceitful, God is the guarantee that there is something corresponding to all that stuff, as Descartes affirms:

"Now, however, I have perceived that God exists, and at the same time I have understood that everything else depends on him, and he is no deceiver; and I have drawn the conclusion that everything which I clearly and distinctly perceive is of necessity true. (Cottingham 1984, p48).

It becomes clear that the foundation of knowledge for Descartes is not just the certainty "Cogito ergo sum" I think therefore I am. There is a second certainty, namely, that God exists. Together these two propositions, constitute for Descartes the foundation of all human knowledge, he goes on to say in the sixth meditation that now that he is certain that he himself exists, and certain that God exists, then it follows that there must be an external world, because within his mind he finds an idea of God and God wouldn't allow him to be deceived. Therefore everything he knows through the senses and through his reason really exists. Then he goes back through all the various beliefs, which he had previously doubted, and accepts that they are in fact trustworthy. This concludes the sixth a last meditation of Descartes method of establishing the certainty of human knowledge.

References and bibliography

Berlin, Isaiah, (ed), The Age of Enlightenment, (London: New English Library, 1956).

Copleston, Frederick, A History of Philosophy, vols 4,5, (London: Burns and Oates, 1965).

Cottingham, John, (ed), The Philosophical Writings of Descartes, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984).

Craig, Edward, Routledge encyclopedia, (London: Routledge, 1998).

Hampshire, Stuart, (ed), The Age of Reason, (London: New English Library, 1956).

Ree, Jonathan, (ed), Descartes, (London: Penguin, 1974).

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Cerebral Palsy

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The words Cerebral Palsy are used to describe a medical condition that affects the control of the muscles. Cerebral means anything in the head and palsy refers to anything wrong with control of the muscles or joints in the body. If someone has cerebral palsy it means that because of an injury to their brain they are not able to use some of the muscles in their body in the normal way. Children who have cerebral palsy, or otherwise referred to as CP, may not be able to walk, talk, eat or play in the same ways as most other kids. It is important to know that CP is not a disease or illness. It is not contagious and it does not get worse, but it is not something you "grow out of". Children who have CP will have it all their lives.

Children with CP have many problems, not all of them related to the brain injury. Most of these complications are nevertheless neurological. They include epilepsy, mental retardation, learning disabilities, and attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder.

Many people in today's world continue to be blind sighted as to what cerebral palsy really is even though many are continuously faced with it everyday. Cerebral palsy is a term used to describe a group of disorders effecting body movement and muscle coordination. The definition of CP is "a non-progressive but not unchanging disorder of movement and/or posture, due to an insult or anomaly of the developing brain." Development of the brain starts in early pregnancy and continues until about age three. Damage to the brain during this time may result in CP. This damage interferes with messages from the brain tot he body, and from the body to the brain.

We do not know the cause of most cases of cerebral palsy. That is we are unable to determine what caused cerebral palsy in most children who have congenital CP. We do know that the child who is as highest risk for developing CP is the premature, very small baby who doesn not cry in the first five minutes after delivery, whoi needs to be on a ventilator for over four weeks, and who ha bleeding in his brain. Babies who have congenital malformations in systems such as the heart, kidneys, or spine are also more likely to develop CP, probably because they also have malformations in the brain. Seizures in a newborn also increase the risk of CP. There is no combination of factors, which always results in abnormally functioning individuals. That is, even the small premature infant has a better than ninety percent chance of not having CP. There are surprising numbers of babies who have very stormy courses in the newborn period and go on to do very well. In contrast, some infants who have rather benign beginnings are eventually found to have severe mental retardation or learning disabilities.

Cerebral Palsy may be classified by the type of movement problem or by the body parts involved. Spasticity refers to the inability of a muscle to relax, while athetosis refers to an inability to control the movement of a muscle. Infants who at first are hypotonic wherein they are very floppy may later develop spasticity. Hemiplegia is cerebral palsy that involves one arm and one leg on the same side of the body, where as with diplegia the primary involvement is both legs. Quadriplegia refers to a pattern involving all four extremities as well as trunk and neck muscles. Another frequently used classification is ataxia, which refers to balance and coordination problems. The motor disability of a child with CP varies greatly from one child to another; thus generalizations about children with cerebral palsy can only have meaning within the context of the subgroups described. With so many different cause of CP, it is no surprise that it takes many forms. Every person with CP is a unique individual, but is likely to be classified as having a particular type of cerebral palsy. Classification can be according to the type of movement disorder and/or by the number of limbs affected. Some other vocabulary that exists within the disease CP is Athetosis, the slow writhing movements particularly in the hands and face, Ataxia, unsteady walking and balance problems, Chorea, jerky movements of the head, arms, or legs, and Dystonia which is the twisting movements and posture of the trunk and/or limbs. Mixed types of cerebral palsy occur when areas of the brain affecting both muscle tone and voluntary movement are affected, a diagnosis of "Mixed - Type CP" may be given. Usually the spasticity is more obvious at first, with involuntary movement increasing as the child develops. The classifications of movement disorder and number of limbs involved are usually combined. These technical words can be useful in describing the type of extent of CP, but hey are only labels. A label does not describe an individual.

The affects of CP vary from individual to individual. Some cases very from very mild to extremely severe. Some side affects of cerebral palsy consist of muscle tightness or spasm, involuntary movement, difficulty with gross motor skills such as walking or running, with fine motor skills such as writing and speaking, abnormal perception and sensation, seizures, learning disabilities, hearing impairment, and vision problems.

The first questions usually asked by parents after they are told their child has cerebral palsy are "What will my child be like?" and "Will he walk?" Predicting what a young child with CP will be like or what he will or will not do is very difficult. Any predictions for an infant under six months of age are little better than guesses, and even for children younger than one year it is often very difficult to predict the pattern of involvement. By the time the child is two years old, however, the physician can determine whether or not the child has hemiplegia, diplegia or quadriplegia. Based on this involvement patter, some predictions can be made. It is worth saying again that children with cerebral palsy do not stop doing activities once they have begun to do them. Such a loss of skills, called regression, is not characteristic of CP. If regression occurs, it is necessary to look for a different cause of the child's problems. In order for a child to be able to walk, some major events in motor control have to occur. A child must be able to hold up his head before he can sit up on his own, and he must be able to sit independently before he can walk on his own. It is generally assumed that if a child is not sitting up by himself by age four or walking by age eight, how will never be an independent walker. But a child who starts to walk at age three will certainly continue to walk and will be walking when he is thirteen years old unless he has a disorder other than CP. It is even more difficult to make early predictions of speaking ability or mental ability than it is to predict motor function. Here, too, evaluation is much more reliable after age two, although a motor disability can make the evaluation of intellectual function quite difficult. Sometimes "motor-free" tests that can assess intellectual ability without the person being tested, needing to use his hands are administered by psychologists who have expertise in their use. Overall, the intellectual ability of the person, far more than their physical disability, will determine the person's prognosis. In other words, mental retardation is far more likely than cerebral palsy to impair a child's ability to function.

Cerebral Palsy is a disease that has affected thousand upon thousand of people. It has been around for many years and will continue to be around probably forever. Just because a person is diagnosed with this makes then absolutely no different than any one of US!!!!!!!!!!!

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