Unitar

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UNITAR was established in 165 as an autonomous body within the UN . It is headed by an Executive Director. The Institute is supported by voluntary contributions from governments and also non-governmental sources

UNITAR has the following functions

•To conduct training programmes in multilateral diplomacy and international cooperation for diplomats accredited to the United Nations and national officials involved in work related to United Nations activities.

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•To carry out a wide range of training programmes in the field of social and economic development.

•To carry out result-oriented research, in particular, research on and for training and to develop pedagogical materials including distance learning training packages, work books, as well as software and video training packs.

•To establish and strengthen cooperation with other inter-governmental organizations, faculties and academic institutions, in particular for the development of research on and for training.

Intruduction

UNITAR is an autonomous body within the United Nations with the mandate to enhance the effectiveness of the UN through training and research. To meet this aim, UNITAR provides training to assist countries in meeting the economic and social challenges of the 1st century; conducts research to explore effective training and capacity building approaches; and forms partnerships with other UN agencies, governments and non-governmental organizations for the development and implementation of training and capacity building programmes to meet the needs and requests of member States, particularly developing countries and countries in transition. Each year, UNITAR reaches out to a large number of individuals and institutions in member States as well as staff of Permanent Missions to the United Nations.

As an autonomous organ of the United Nations, UNITAR enjoys a certain flexibility and scope for initiative. The Institute operates by maintaining a constant dialogue with donor and recipient countries in the setting and execution of its tasks. This increases accuracy in the identification of the needs of member States and makes for a more imaginative approach to meeting those needs as well as giving a sense of ownership to the recipient parties. The Institute is funded entirely from voluntary contributions, a fact that has helped forge its identity although at the same time limiting its ability to answer all the training requests received.

During the last decade, UNITAR has developed a particular vision of training characterized by its institutional setting and its diverse and inter-disciplinary human resource base. Training and capacity building have become the main objective of the Institute since the beginning of its restructuring. Programmes are designed in the light of clearly identified needs and implemented creatively to assist partners in adapting to the globalization of issues such as dispute resolution, environmental management, trade and finance. New models of apprenticeship in specialized fields are becoming increasingly important. These competences are built on individual and collective experiences and mature reflection on lessons learned.

UNITAR no longer carries out pure research, concentrating for the past decade on applied research, closely linked to training and falling into two main categories country-based research and research used in training. In the area of country-based research, UNITARs activities are designed to equip national teams with the knowledge, skills and tools necessary to undertake their own research. Activities include the provision of training as well as post-training assistance to ensure that the country-based research can then be applied.

UNITAR also undertakes research to facilitate improvement and innovation in training methods. Evaluation of its country-based programmes and training events helps UNITAR to ensure that lessons learned are applied to new initiatives. Pilot projects are another means to test innovative training and capacity building approaches. UNITAR also employs traditional research on training or pedagogical methods to determine the best means for achieving training objectives. For example, as part of its training and capacity building programmes, UNITAR has developed a range of distance learning training packages some of which are available on-line.

Within the new framework of international cooperation, the importance of the training component in the development process has increased. The requests from developing countries and countries with economies in transition are constantly increasing. Currently, UNITAR organizes some 10 different programmes, fellowships, seminars and workshops every year, benefiting in excess of 5,500 participants over five continents.UNITAR looks forward to working with partners both from within and outside the UN system for the continued improvement of its programmes and methodologies in order to ensure that the Institute can effectively address the emerging needs and challenges faced by countries and their citizens.

Board of Trustees

Ms. Agnes Y. AGGREY-ORLEANS (Ghana)

Mr. Munir AKRAM (Pakistan)

Mr. Gustavo ALBIN (Mexico)

Ms. Rasha Hamood AL-JABIR AL-MUBARAK AL-SABAH (Kuwait)

Ms. Celina Maria ASSUMPCAO DO VALLE PEREIRA (Brazil)

Mr. Anders BJURNER (Sweden)

Mr. Jean-Marc BOULGARIS (Switzerland)

Mr. Bernard FAUTRIER (Monaco)

Ms. Nala GABR MOHAMED GABR ALI (Arab Republic of Egypt)

Mr. David A. HAMBURG (USA)

Mr. Omar HILALE (Morocco)

Mr. Yuji IKEDA (Japan)

Mr. Mukesh KAPILA (United Kingdom)

Mr. Bernard KESSEDJIAN (France)

Mr. Milos KUZVART (Czech Republic) Chief Arthur C.I. MBANEFO (Nigeria)

Mr. Sipho George NENE (South Africa)

Mr. Nico SCHRIJVER (Netherlands)

Mr. SHA Zukang (China)

Mr. Leonid A. SKOTNIKOV (Russian Federation)

Mr. Ernst SUCHARIPA (Austria)

Reports and Documentation

The Work Programme of UNITAR comes out every two years. It is the principal public information brochure of the Institute and is circulated widely by post and distributed at conferences worldwide. This year, for the first time, the brochure is available on line in PDF format. The Work Programme is not intended to be a catalogue of the upcoming programmes but rather a short description of the approaches and contents of UNITARs training programmes.

The Statute of UNITAR is also available on PDF. This document constitutes the basis of UNITARs legal existence, setting out the purposes and functions of the Institute as decided by the General Assembly resolution 14 (XVII) of 11 December 16 and taking into account amendments and revisions since then

The Report of the Executive Director to the General Assembly is also produced every two years and is submitted to the attention of the Secretary-General. The report provides an account of the progress of the Institutes activities over the preceeding biennium. It is printed by the United Nations in New York and is translated into all six languages of the UN. The English version of the last report is available here in PDF format

Climate Change Program

Supporting country driven capacity building initiatives and serving as a rapid and efficient implementation tool for the work of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change with GEF Implementing Agencies and other bilateral donors.

International Affairs Management

Offering practice-oriented training courses in public international law, international relations and diplomatic skills to government officials, university teachers and NGO representatives from around the world

Finantial Department

Training lawyers and non-lawyers in the legal aspects of external debt management through short-duration regional seminars and workshops, online training courses as well as development and dissemination of best practices and training packages. The debt management programme is also offering e-learning courses.

Foreign Economic Relations

Providing training programmes to public sector officials to enhance their knowledge and tools for managing public finances, negotiating loans and trade agreements .

Woman and Children Under Conflict

Heightening awareness of the particular difficulties and needs of women and children in conflict or post-conflict zones, organizing training courses targeting international and local civilian staff members employed by UN Peacekeeping Missions.

Corespondence Instructions

In

Peacekeeping Operations

Established in 15, this programme provides distance learning courses. All training material is provided in printed text books consisting of a series of lessons and culminating in an end of course examination

Chemicals and Waste Management

A variety of programmes and services support training and capacity building efforts to strengthen the foundations for chemicals management at the country level, and assist countries in implementing national priorities and relevant international agreements

Please note that this sample paper on unitar is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on unitar, we are here to assist you. Your cheap research papers on unitar will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Morality

If you order your custom term paper from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on Morality. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality Morality paper right on time.

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Morality

In "Bartleby" by the following definition offered by the Oxford English Dictionary, none of the characters employed by the narrator qualify as highly moral characters; "Moral 1)concerned with the principles of right and wrong behavior and the goodness or badness of human character. )conforming to accepted standards of behavior". Turkey's immorality is used as a basis of comparison in order to show that Bartleby does not even attempt to be moral nor does he have any potential to be moral.

 

In Turkey's case the author clearly outlines his flaws as a character, and as a nuisance to any employer. Turkey does not seem to be concerned with how his employer feels but rather makes a routine of getting drunk and obnoxious every afternoon. He is a very loud messy drunk and does not make up pretexts for it. Turkey's character is important in contrast with Bartleby because he seems to be everything Bartleby isn't at first. Here is how the narrator begins his depiction of these two characters " not that he was absolutely idle or averse to business, then ;far from it. The difficulty was that he was apt to be altogether too energetic" (4). He is loud, opinionated, rude, and counter productive at times; when Bartleby was " pallidly neat, pitiably respectable and incurably forlorn" (). We will see that the narrator makes this comparison to show that appearances are deceiving in the case of Bartleby, and that his shift in character makes Turkey seems almost normal in the end.

Besides serving as a comparison to Bartleby, the portrayal of Turkey and the way his incompetence is dealt with, provides the audience with a glimpse of the weakness of his employer. We see this in the way the narrator deals with Turkey in his sad attempt to fire him. It is obvious that he has never learned how to be strict or demanding, and this scenario concludes with the following statement

" At all events. I saw that go he would not. So I made up my mind to let him stay" (5). Instead of putting his foot down, he compromises with Turkey and goes out of his way to make the situation work. It seems like the situation is out of his control when in fact he is the one with authority. This harboring of Turkey's incompetence is a foreshadowing of similar instances in Bartleby's case.

In the literary sense, Bartleby and Turkey seem to be complete opposites. Bartleby is neat and reserved, efficient and respectable. In fact we see that this is one of the main reasons he was hired, to make up for the bad image of the other two scriveners, "I engaged him glad to have among my corps of copyists a man of so singularly sedate an aspect, which I thought might operate beneficially upon the flighty temper of Turkey, and the fiery one of Nippers" (). Yet when Bartleby shows his true colors and states his odd and irritating preferences, Turkey's flaws seem pale by comparison. As the story progresses, Bartleby refuses to comply. At first he refuses to help proof- read his documents, then he refuses to run any errands and finally he "prefers" not to do any work at all.

Just like in the case of Turkey, the employer tried to plead, and attempted to be stern with Bartleby, but he ends up compromising more every day.

In this aspect Turkey and Bartleby are similar to a certain extent, but the odd behavior of Bartleby surpasses any eccentric display seen by Turkey or Nippers. One would even say that the flaws displayed by Nippers, another odd employee, and Turkey were normal human imperfections compared to those displayed by Bartleby. The author built up Turkey to be as odd as we might imagine a coworker, and then introduced Bartleby who puzzles us beyond imagination. His refusal to do work at first is comparable to the temporary lack of work done every day by the other two scriveners, but when Bartleby "prefers" not to work at all, his character surpasses all expectations.

If the lack of moral conduct was not present in Turkey to show the narrator's tolerance for such behavior, his attitude and tolerance toward Bartleby would be more random and would not fit in the story at all. The author built on the characters of the narrator and Turkey to give the audience mixed feelings about Bartleby. Also he did so to show that even most deplorable, inappropriate behavior can be found excuse for. Personally, I felt sorry and angry with Bartleby at the same time, because I saw him through the eyes of the narrator. Since he had given Turkey and Nippers chances to fit into his office life, the narrator felt the need to do so with Bartleby even though his case was more severe and unusual. In response he ended up going to unusual lengths to accommodate Bartleby in order to make himself think he did everything he could to help the situation. The greater the demands made by the scrivener, the greater the compromise, resulting in the "boss" moving his offices. This is a glimpse of the ongoing denial and self assurance that Bartleby is to be pitied going on in the narrator's mind.

Even so, for the most part, I regarded Bartleby and his own ways. Poor fellow! Thought I, he means no mischief; it is plain he intends no insolence; his aspect sufficiently evinces that his eccentricities are involuntary. He is useful to me. I can get along with him. If I turn him away, the chances are he will fall in with some less indulgent employer, and then he would be rudely treated, and perhaps driven forth miserably to starve. Yes. Here I can cheaply purchase a delicious self- approval.(15)

Bartleby is not only nonchalant in his refusal to adapt to moral behavior and normal office expectations, but he doesn't even attempt to do so in light of low standards presented by his two coworkers. Turkey's purpose in the story is to show that Bartleby was not only odd compared to the outside life, but even compared to the non existent guidelines in this office environment.

Like Turkey, Bartleby takes advantage of his employer's lack of a backbone, only he does this to a greater extent. We see Turkey appeal to his soft spot for their age similarity, "this appeal to my fellow feeling was hardly to be resisted" (5). Bartleby does not even think to ask for help, pity or accept it when offered to him, instead he demands it. The way he does this is inconceivable to me as a reader; not only does he refuse to run errands or do work at all, but he imposes himself and lives in the office without permission. It is interesting to see that even the characters that seem flawed and detached at the beginning of the story offer to put Bartleby in his place, showing that even though similar at first the three are worlds apart.

Even though Turkey does not seem as a moral person by definition, when compared to Bartleby he posses human characteristics that make him more likely to conform to standards or moral requirements than he seems at first glance. Even when incarcerated, Bartleby still has the same passive attitude that he has throughout the story, showing that he has no desire to change even when his life is at stake. Bartleby doesn't eat, drink, get mad or show any kind of emotion therefore he cannot show morality if he does not posses humanity, this is why Turkey is closer to being a moral person than Bartleby can even be capable of.

Herman Melville's Bartleby and The Lightning- Rod Man. New York 168, Penguin 60s; 1-48

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Asian american

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Growing up in the United States as an Asian American, I was never really fully aware of the differences between my classmates and I until I entered middle school and high school. Being the only person in my family to be a citizen at birth, my family always stressed that I could be anything I wanted to be, including the President. I did not take it seriously and never wanted to become the President, but I grew up with the mentality that I was like every other American. It never occurred to me that Americans should all have the same physical features. My friends, while growing up, were mostly white with a few minorities here and there. I became friends with whomever I liked. Even though I didn't start off speaking English fluently, the language barrier did not prevent me from becoming best friends with a Caucasian. The very first incident that ever made me wonder about my identity was in kindergarten. One of my peers and I were waiting in line for the bathroom and she turned around and asked me why my nose is so flat. All I could say in return was why her nose was so pointy. When I got home that afternoon, I asked my mother the same question – why is my nose so flat? I never thought so until she had pointed it out. My mother explained that not everyone's features were the same. Some people have flat noses, others have pointy, big, small, or round. Then I asked her why she had a flat nose too. She responded that many Asians have flat noses, with which I responded, "But I'm not Asian." My mother then proceeded to explain that I am both Asian and American. After that day, right before I went to bed, I would pinch my nose in hopes of making my not so flat and being more American. Looking back at that event, I do not think I ever really understood what had happened. I still do not think it was a big deal. Children are often curious and more straightforward. I do not believe it was a racist remark, just an innocent one; but it had affected me without me realizing it.

As I grew older and entered into high school, I became prouder of being who I was, an Asian American. I began to have more and more Asian friends, although I still did have Caucasian friends as well. I also became involved with YOCA – Young Organization of Chinese Americans. I noticed that my school was very cliquey. If you were not part of the crowd, do not even think about going over and sitting at their tables. Many of the Asians sat together at lunch and that they separated themselves from the rest of the school. I became drawn into this social group and became more "Asianized" in the process. It was at this time that I became fully aware of my social group membership and that that affected the way one was treated in society. I remember one day at lunchtime, a freshman Caucasian student approached a senior Asian student and asked him to go to another table. The Asian student refused to move and the Caucasian student spewed out a whole bunch of racial slurs and the Asian student then punched the Caucasian student. A fight broke out and was eventually stopped by the lunch ladies and both were sent up to the Principal's office. Many people saw and heard what had happened between the two and knew that the Caucasian student had instigated the fight. By the end of the day, the entire Asian social group had heard what had happened. The Principal cleaned up the Caucasian student and sent him back to class while the Asian student had to stay and was punished for his actions. He was suspended from school for a few weeks. When we heard this, we were outraged that someone who said racial comments could get away with it. Granted the Asian student did not have to punch the Caucasian student, so in that sense, yes he should have been punished; however, the Caucasian student should also have been punished as well. Because he did not get punished, it came off that it was okay to say racial slurs because it is not something you could get in trouble for. Many of us were angry at the Principal's decision and felt that he was also being racist for letting the Caucasian student get away with what he did. The Asian student community got together and wrote a petition to the Principal about the incident. Although it did not do anything to make the Principal change his actions, it got the community together and made me very aware of my standing as an Asian American. I have always been taught to stand up for yourself and be proud of who you are. Yet when you stand up for yourself and try to protect your identity, you can get punished for it. It felt like because he was not white, he did not get the same rights as the other student; because he was not a model minority and did not just accept the racial comments, he was in the wrong. Many people had heard what the Caucasian student said and told the Principal, but the Principal seemed to let that behavior slide, as if it were okay or it was a Caucasians right to say such things. And Asians did not have the right to stand up and protect themselves from those comments. But if it had been reversed, the Caucasian student would have had those rights.

I remember a few years ago in 1999 a national controversial issue that affected the Chinese and Asian community and had many people very angry with the United States government. In 1999, Dr. Wen Ho Lee, a former nuclear scientist at Los Alamos Laboratories, was put in abusive solitary confinement for nine months because he was suspected of being a spy for the Communist Chinese. The government had little evidence for such a claim, only suspicions, yet it still made public pronouncements about Wen Ho Lee, damaging his reputation, placed him in solitary confinement and did not let him contact his family. Lee was manacled and kept in leg irons during his prison stay. Prior to his solitary confinement, FBI agents interviewed Lee and falsely told him that he had failed a polygraph test and urged him to confess. Whatever happened to innocent until proven guilty? Eventually, Lee was released after a plea agreement. How was it possible that if he was such a threat to the United State's national security that he would all of a sudden be released. The Asian Community across the United Stated worked together to protest this unfair act. People signed protest petitions to Janet Reno, sent money for his defense fund, showed up for rallies and demonstrations across the country, and signed a petition for a presidential pardon for Wen Ho Lee. I was among those in the community who was very angered and outraged at the government's actions. I took part in all the petitions and would have participated in the rallies and demonstrations had any of them been in New York. I did not understand how the United States government could just go around all the laws that it had come up and expect its citizens to follow when it did not even follow them.

Last semester, there was a big incident in the clothing industry. Abercrombie and Fitch attempted to appeal to more Asian Americans with a new line of t-shirts with ethnic caricatures and slogans. Many people found these t-shirts to be very offensive and reinforced negative stereotypes of Asian Americans. I was not very offended by these t-shirts, a little shocked that they would put these t-shirts on the shelves, but otherwise it was not a big deal to me. I can see how many Asian Americans were very offended though. Abercrombie and Fitch is a company that I have always associated as a "white clothing company." If you look at their catalogues and stores, you'll find that the models and people working there are about 90 percent of the time white. So I tend to think of the company as geared towards white people. I knew there were rallies everywhere and petitions to sign, but I chose to be passive and did not become involved in the situation. Sometimes I look back on the situation and think that perhaps I should have involved myself in the petitions and rallies. Sometimes I feel like I did not stand up for my social group and went along with the oppression.

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Looking back, I do not remember there ever being a time when I did not want to be a member of my social group. My parents have always taught me that being Chinese is a part of who I am, just like being American is also a part of who I am. I do not always feel like I solely belong to either social group, but I am part of both. I am proud of who I am because without that part of me, I would not be who I am today. I am aware of my Chinese culture and language, and at the same time, I am very assimilated into the American society. I understand where I stand in society – I have one foot in each door and I comfortable, proud, and lucky to be able to be part of both cultures. I can go to my place of origin and blend in there, get along with people there; at the same time, I can be in the United States and blend in here too. I am able to experience both worlds, something that would not be possible if I were not Asian American.

Please note that this sample paper on asian american is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on asian american, we are here to assist you. Your persuasive essay on asian american will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Descarte

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In this essay, I propose to explain Descartes's system of methodic doubt. It will be necessary to look at his thoughts throughout his work in "The meditations". I will also show how Descartes subjected to doubt, all that could be possibly doubted, and arrived at the indubitable proposition: Cogito ergo sum, or I think, therefore I am. I will also explain how Descartes proceeded from this basis to prove the existence of God. Finally, I will conclude with how these two propositions together, for Descartes, established the certainty of human knowledge.

Descartes devised his system of methodic doubt in order to discover an indubitable belief, which he could use as a certain, and secure foundation as the basis for knowledge. For Descartes it was necessary to look inside himself at all the beliefs he once held as true, and subject them to the strongest of doubts. For the purpose of freeing himself from all preconceived opinions, he allowed himself to believe that all his past beliefs were false and imaginary, as he states in the first meditation: " So, for the purpose of rejecting all my opinions, it will be enough if I find in each of them at least some reason for doubt." (Cottingham 1984, p12). This provided Descartes with the easiest path by which to lead the mind away from the senses. In considering how far doubt can be extended, he begins by questioning his sense perception.

Descartes realises that everything that he has up till now accepted as true has been acquired either from the senses or through the senses. However there have been times when he has found that his senses can deceive, such as when objects may appear differently from various points of view, and that therefore it is highly probable that other things which appear certain through the senses may in reality be illusions. On further reflection, Descartes ponders the proposition of being asleep or awake. He wonders if this is something that cannot be doubted. However he soon realises that there have been times when he has been asleep and dreaming of the same experiences he had when awake. Descartes argues: "How often asleep at night, am I convinced of just such familiar events-that I am here in my dressing-gown, sitting by the fire-when in fact I am lying undressed in bed!" (Cottingham 1984, p13). Descartes comes to realise that dreaming and reality are so blurred that he cannot know if anything occurring is true or false and that therefore the external world may be an illusion. Descartes thus asserts that all the knowledge derived from the senses cannot be regarded as absolutely certain.

Descartes then considers the propositions of mathematics and the fact that a square has four sides and that two and three always makes five. This he perceives to be true whether he is asleep or awake and it appears that this cannot be doubted. On further consideration, however, Descartes considers the possibility that God may have brought it about that he just imagines these things are true, that God is making his mind incorrect when he adds two and three or counts the sides of a square. He further imagines that God is causing him to have sensations in his mind of the things he perceives around him. However when considering God as supremely good, Descartes finds it hard to believe that this supreme good being would deceive, therefore, Descartes invents the idea of an evil demon who is deceiving him, Descartes says of the evil demon: " I shall think that the sky, the air, the earth, colours, shapes, sounds and all external things are merely the delusions of dreams which he has devised to ensnare my judgment" (Cottingham 1984, p13). Descartes introduces this idea of the evil demon in order to prevent the return of the former beliefs previously called into doubt. Therefore at the end of the first meditation, Descartes is now in the position where he has put aside all his beliefs as not being fully certain. Thereafter within his second meditation he manages to limit the spread of doubt brought about by the evil demon hypothesis.

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Eventually, after consideration of all the beliefs he has doubted and set aside, Descartes realises that there is one thing he is doing all the time, and that is using his mind to think. For Descartes, by the very procedure of imagining an evil demon and the fact that he is thinking, establishes that he exists. This becomes for him the one sure and certain proposition on which to base his knowledge. Descartes considering the evil demon deceiving him states: "In that case I too undoubtedly exist, if he is deceiving me, and let him deceive me as much as he can, he will never bring it about that I am nothing so long as I think I am something." (Cottingham 1984, p17). This forms the basis of Descartes belief in the certainty that if nothing else, he exists. The point here is that it is impossible to doubt the truth of this proposition, therefore for Descartes the entire context of human knowledge consists upon this single proposition: "Cogito ergo sum", or, I think therefore I am. Even if he is dreaming, or God or an evil demon is trying to deceive him, his clearest perception of himself is as a thinking thing.

Descartes affirms this thinking self by the fact that he has sense and imagination, he wonders if there is anything, which corresponds to all this activity, and that now that he is certain of his own existence, if there is anything else of which he can be certain. This is how Descartes leaves at the end of the second meditation. He then comes back to this problem at the beginning of the third meditation and when he reconsiders the idea of the evil demon, in his mind he looks around and finds an idea of God, a supreme being and he wonders how the idea got there. In considering the idea of God as eternal, infinite and omnipotent Descartes discovers: " All these attributes are such that, the more carefully I concentrate on them, the less possible it seems that they could have originated from me alone. So from what has been said it must be concluded that God necessarily exists" (Cottingham 1984, p31).

Descartes proceeds in his demonstration of the existence of God by analysing the nature of thought, for Descartes there are three kinds of ideas: ideas, which he invents, ideas, which appear to be, and ideas, which are innate. For Descartes the most important ideas are innate which he finds in his mind, he knows that he is not the cause of his own idea of God because he thinks that any idea of an infinite all-knowing God transcends his own mental ability. God, therefore, causes the idea of God in his mind as he says: "This idea of a supremely perfect and infinite being is, I say, true in the highest degree; for although perhaps one may imagine that such a being does not exist, it cannot be supposed that the idea of such a being represents something unreal" (Cottingham 1984, p31). He concludes that God of whom he has an idea must possess all the perfection of which he cannot. Here he is trying to establish a definite proof of the existence of God and he discovers within his conscious mind this second certain proposition, namely God, exists.

Finally, Descartes considers whether material things exist. For Descartes, God guarantees that all the stuff in his mind must come from the stuff outside his mind and because God is not deceitful, God is the guarantee that there is something corresponding to all that stuff, as Descartes affirms:

"Now, however, I have perceived that God exists, and at the same time I have understood that everything else depends on him, and he is no deceiver; and I have drawn the conclusion that everything which I clearly and distinctly perceive is of necessity true. (Cottingham 1984, p48).

It becomes clear that the foundation of knowledge for Descartes is not just the certainty "Cogito ergo sum" I think therefore I am. There is a second certainty, namely, that God exists. Together these two propositions, constitute for Descartes the foundation of all human knowledge, he goes on to say in the sixth meditation that now that he is certain that he himself exists, and certain that God exists, then it follows that there must be an external world, because within his mind he finds an idea of God and God wouldn't allow him to be deceived. Therefore everything he knows through the senses and through his reason really exists. Then he goes back through all the various beliefs, which he had previously doubted, and accepts that they are in fact trustworthy. This concludes the sixth a last meditation of Descartes method of establishing the certainty of human knowledge.

References and bibliography

Berlin, Isaiah, (ed), The Age of Enlightenment, (London: New English Library, 1956).

Copleston, Frederick, A History of Philosophy, vols 4,5, (London: Burns and Oates, 1965).

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Cerebral Palsy

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The words Cerebral Palsy are used to describe a medical condition that affects the control of the muscles. Cerebral means anything in the head and palsy refers to anything wrong with control of the muscles or joints in the body. If someone has cerebral palsy it means that because of an injury to their brain they are not able to use some of the muscles in their body in the normal way. Children who have cerebral palsy, or otherwise referred to as CP, may not be able to walk, talk, eat or play in the same ways as most other kids. It is important to know that CP is not a disease or illness. It is not contagious and it does not get worse, but it is not something you "grow out of". Children who have CP will have it all their lives.

Children with CP have many problems, not all of them related to the brain injury. Most of these complications are nevertheless neurological. They include epilepsy, mental retardation, learning disabilities, and attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder.

Many people in today's world continue to be blind sighted as to what cerebral palsy really is even though many are continuously faced with it everyday. Cerebral palsy is a term used to describe a group of disorders effecting body movement and muscle coordination. The definition of CP is "a non-progressive but not unchanging disorder of movement and/or posture, due to an insult or anomaly of the developing brain." Development of the brain starts in early pregnancy and continues until about age three. Damage to the brain during this time may result in CP. This damage interferes with messages from the brain tot he body, and from the body to the brain.

We do not know the cause of most cases of cerebral palsy. That is we are unable to determine what caused cerebral palsy in most children who have congenital CP. We do know that the child who is as highest risk for developing CP is the premature, very small baby who doesn not cry in the first five minutes after delivery, whoi needs to be on a ventilator for over four weeks, and who ha bleeding in his brain. Babies who have congenital malformations in systems such as the heart, kidneys, or spine are also more likely to develop CP, probably because they also have malformations in the brain. Seizures in a newborn also increase the risk of CP. There is no combination of factors, which always results in abnormally functioning individuals. That is, even the small premature infant has a better than ninety percent chance of not having CP. There are surprising numbers of babies who have very stormy courses in the newborn period and go on to do very well. In contrast, some infants who have rather benign beginnings are eventually found to have severe mental retardation or learning disabilities.

Cerebral Palsy may be classified by the type of movement problem or by the body parts involved. Spasticity refers to the inability of a muscle to relax, while athetosis refers to an inability to control the movement of a muscle. Infants who at first are hypotonic wherein they are very floppy may later develop spasticity. Hemiplegia is cerebral palsy that involves one arm and one leg on the same side of the body, where as with diplegia the primary involvement is both legs. Quadriplegia refers to a pattern involving all four extremities as well as trunk and neck muscles. Another frequently used classification is ataxia, which refers to balance and coordination problems. The motor disability of a child with CP varies greatly from one child to another; thus generalizations about children with cerebral palsy can only have meaning within the context of the subgroups described. With so many different cause of CP, it is no surprise that it takes many forms. Every person with CP is a unique individual, but is likely to be classified as having a particular type of cerebral palsy. Classification can be according to the type of movement disorder and/or by the number of limbs affected. Some other vocabulary that exists within the disease CP is Athetosis, the slow writhing movements particularly in the hands and face, Ataxia, unsteady walking and balance problems, Chorea, jerky movements of the head, arms, or legs, and Dystonia which is the twisting movements and posture of the trunk and/or limbs. Mixed types of cerebral palsy occur when areas of the brain affecting both muscle tone and voluntary movement are affected, a diagnosis of "Mixed - Type CP" may be given. Usually the spasticity is more obvious at first, with involuntary movement increasing as the child develops. The classifications of movement disorder and number of limbs involved are usually combined. These technical words can be useful in describing the type of extent of CP, but hey are only labels. A label does not describe an individual.

The affects of CP vary from individual to individual. Some cases very from very mild to extremely severe. Some side affects of cerebral palsy consist of muscle tightness or spasm, involuntary movement, difficulty with gross motor skills such as walking or running, with fine motor skills such as writing and speaking, abnormal perception and sensation, seizures, learning disabilities, hearing impairment, and vision problems.

The first questions usually asked by parents after they are told their child has cerebral palsy are "What will my child be like?" and "Will he walk?" Predicting what a young child with CP will be like or what he will or will not do is very difficult. Any predictions for an infant under six months of age are little better than guesses, and even for children younger than one year it is often very difficult to predict the pattern of involvement. By the time the child is two years old, however, the physician can determine whether or not the child has hemiplegia, diplegia or quadriplegia. Based on this involvement patter, some predictions can be made. It is worth saying again that children with cerebral palsy do not stop doing activities once they have begun to do them. Such a loss of skills, called regression, is not characteristic of CP. If regression occurs, it is necessary to look for a different cause of the child's problems. In order for a child to be able to walk, some major events in motor control have to occur. A child must be able to hold up his head before he can sit up on his own, and he must be able to sit independently before he can walk on his own. It is generally assumed that if a child is not sitting up by himself by age four or walking by age eight, how will never be an independent walker. But a child who starts to walk at age three will certainly continue to walk and will be walking when he is thirteen years old unless he has a disorder other than CP. It is even more difficult to make early predictions of speaking ability or mental ability than it is to predict motor function. Here, too, evaluation is much more reliable after age two, although a motor disability can make the evaluation of intellectual function quite difficult. Sometimes "motor-free" tests that can assess intellectual ability without the person being tested, needing to use his hands are administered by psychologists who have expertise in their use. Overall, the intellectual ability of the person, far more than their physical disability, will determine the person's prognosis. In other words, mental retardation is far more likely than cerebral palsy to impair a child's ability to function.

Cerebral Palsy is a disease that has affected thousand upon thousand of people. It has been around for many years and will continue to be around probably forever. Just because a person is diagnosed with this makes then absolutely no different than any one of US!!!!!!!!!!!

Please note that this sample paper on Cerebral Palsy is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Cerebral Palsy, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on Cerebral Palsy will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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