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Biology
Structure is related to function
Name Brodie Kenyon
Teacher Mrs. Firth
Custom writing offers papers on Locomotion: Structure related to function
Due Date 4th March
Table of Contents
Page 1 - Title Page
Page - Table of Contents
Page - Sketching Toad
Page 4 - Fish
Page 5 - Bird
Page 6 - Cat
Page 7 - Lizard
Page 8 - Dog
Page - Introduction
Page - Adaptations of Skeletal Structure
Page - Class locomotion Compare and Contrast
Page 1 - Conclusion
Page 14 - Bibliography
Adaptations of Skeletal Structure
Skeletal structure differs for the locomotion of all species. Locomotion refers to the movement of an animal from one place to another4, many reasons for locomotion include searching for food, escape from predators, find a mate or in search for better living conditions. Many modes of locomotion include burrowing to swimming into large depths of water or from air to water and vice versa. All forms of locomotion require exertions of energy and force on their surrounding environment, using both muscular and non-muscular movements. Adaptations in joints and bone structure enable each species to migrate from positions in any way that they need to.
Joints and structure adaptations in class Aves (bird) are important for their locomotion. Birds are well adapted and suited for aerial mode of life that their whole organization and body structure is based on this mechanism. Since flight imposes a large surface weight ratio, birds are commonly small compared to other mammals. This short body creates less surface area for gravity to pull them down to surface. Birds bodies are small and have large amount of feathers upon its body, which are used for heat insulation and flight. There are different kinds of feathers on different parts of the body, meant for different functions. The alteration of forelimb to wing is the most important adaptation to flight. There are two free carpals; and the rest of the wrist is made of three metacarpals, the rather large pectoral muscles, making a larger part of the weight of the body produces the active movements of aerial locomotion. The muscle in the arm itself serves to extend the whole wing and to change the positions of the parts which assist with the aerodynamics and powered flight of the bird. The larger the bird, the more force which needs to be generated to maintain its flight pattern which is why most birds are short, light skeletal structural adaptations and aerodynamic posture. Gliding flight is economical in energetic terms as to powerful flapping flight. Aerofoil is also used to generate lift in all type of flight the size and shape of the orientation of the aerofoil determines the flight performance.
Most characteristic adaptations occur in the skeleton. Bones are light, and most of the birds have extensions of the air sacs. Sternum contains a large keel for the connection of muscles, the final tail vertebrae is merged. By the presence of the keel, with its muscles, the centre of gravity is below the centre of pressure, giving great stability. The joints of the vertebral column are compacted so that there is only movement in the cervical region. Limbs and girdles are also altered and great fusion of bones takes place. The neck is stretched and highly mobile. The trunk is plump, boat-shaped and is the larger part of the body. They have two pairs of limbs which are against the trunk when the animal is not flying. As shown in fig 1 each wing shows three typical divisions as do most animals upper arm, forearm and hand.
The shape of the wings and evolution of the muscles depend on the type of the flight that they wish to endure. The hind limbs are placed in a position that they can carry the entire body weight when they are on the ground.
Class Mammalian involves a less technical procedure for locomotion throughout their environment. Mammals are vertebrates by definition, this means that all mammals have an internal bony support structure to which muscles and ligaments are attached4. With basic joint and bone structure enables basic movement against the force of gravity. With mammals travelling on the surface of Earth a majority of the weight is transferred directly onto the surface. The main structure of the locomotion for mammals is the pelvic girdle. With both limbs departing from this structure, it becomes valuable for the precise movement of both limbs. Mammals consist of a head at one end of a vertebral column from which extend ribs to support the working organs and four limbs for locomotion. The vertebral column ends in a tail but the huge range of lifestyles and habitats utilised by mammals means that a great deal of variety exists between different groups. Some species lack a tail, others lack apparent hind limbs and the skull is very variable7. The skull in early stages consists of a very cartilagous structure, containing minimal bone, but as the body develops so does the bone structure throughout the body.
Amphibian locomotion differs as they are in both water and land, the skeleton design is highly specialised. Amphibians contain short, barely flexible vertebral column. Particularly the toad contains an unusual wishbone shaped pelvic girdle. The hind limb, proximal pair of ankle bones are separate and elongated5. Therefore different amphibian species migrate in varied ways. The main action for locomotion is the bending of the elbow1. The toad transfers positions using mainly strong, flexibly hind limbs, with a great outreach and forceful propulsion on the surface. With great movement in all pelvis region, knees and especially ankle region shows that they are able to conduct swimming locomotion as well as land.
Class Osteichthyes (Fish) skeletal structure differs throughout their species and are present in many varying forms all over the world. The main difference between shapes of individual species would firstly concern the need for them to travel through a resistant fluid with varying densities, pressures and drags. With a combination of these problems each species has developed, sometimes radically, different body profiles, many have developed torpedo shaped bodies to counteract the drag and glide through the water5. The caudal fin is probably the most important attachment used for acceleration as it whips through the water generating acceleration throughout their environment. Sideways curvature in the spine moves in a posterior direction to ensure basic direction and adaptation to their swimming environment. The swimming procedure starts with lateral displacement of head, and then passage of this displacement along the body axis to the tail1, similar to peristalsis motion to force the structure through using energy powering force. This Eel-like swimming characteristic is more energy efficient than power stroking using fins.
The lizard (Reptilia) is evolved from the class amphibian. With very fast rear limb movements, requires the lizard to have full mobility at the knees8. These very fast land animals have a basic locomotive structure. When the travel they also use the wave like motion similar to a fish, which enables them to be aerodynamic and not exert as much energy to move. With a lateral flexible spine allows side movement similar to the fish. They contain fine bones underneath the mandible so when they flare the frill neck is at a constant output8. Locomotion is common with these animals so adaptations are similar with all species.
The dog (Canis familiaris) and the cat (Felis silvestris) are both mammals, but even though they seem so similar there are varying differences in locomotion structure and skeleton structure. The movements in the neck are slightly limited to the dog when compared to the cat. Many differences which can be identified are that cats have a more curved and flexible spine. The have a longer tail and typically smaller animal. The body structures are typically the same, only differs slightly in the limb structure. Cats are particularly flexible; this is due to the structure of their body. Cats have 0 spinal vertebrae which extends all the way to the tip of the tail. This is 5 more than is found in humans, also Scapulae (shoulder bones) which are attached to the sides of the body by muscle, pliable discs of the bone-like substance fibrocartilage, a small floating clavicle attached to the body by muscle and strong hind legs which are longer than the forelegs, this enables them to jump long distances and climb vertical structures.
Locomotion is important in all species whether its for food or defensive actions, Skeletal structure is important to ensure locomotion is accurate in direct and prevent injuries. Basically skeletal structure is the bony section of the body and holds everything together. Without locomotion and moving parts, species would be still and not able to move. Skeletal structure even helps stimulate breathing by putting pressure on the lungs. Locomotion is important in everyday life for interaction feeding and daily habits. The design of locomotive structure determines the energy exertion amount and preserves energy for other activities. Finally adaptations in joints and bone structure enables each specific species to migrate from positions in any way they require to and live as modern day vertebrates.
1.Alexander, R. McN. "Size, speed, and buoyancy adaptations in aquatic animals". Am. Zool. 0 (18)
.Brown, R. H. J. (16). "The flight of birds". Biol. Rev. 8
.Cambell, Mitchell and Reece "Biology Concepts & Connections, nd Edition" Addison Wesley Lonmgman Inc. (17), Lisa Moller
4.Knox, Ladgies, Evans and Saint "Biology nd Edition" McGraw-Hill Companies (001) Australia, NSW
5.M.J Lighthill "Hydromechanics of Aquatic Animal Propulsion" Ann. Rev Fluid. Mech. Vol 1 (16)
6.http//www.boneroom.com/bone/animalskel.html 5/0/0
7.http//www.ece.eps.hw.ac.uk/Research/oceans/people/Michael_Sfakiotakis/IEEEJOE_.pdf (1) 1/0/0
8.http//www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/reptiles/lizard/Lizardprintout.shtml (00) 0/0/0
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