Motivators for Adoption of Interorganizational Information Systems

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Why are some organizations adopting a technological innovation that is announced to yield both operational and strategic benefits while others hesitate, or decide not to adopt for the time being? This question is highly relevant especially in the case of interorganizational information systems (IOS) exemplified by EDI (electronic data interchange), due to the earnest attention this particular technology had received throughout the 10s from academia, practitioners, and governments all over the world. Surprisingly few Danish organizations have adopted EDI. If their technical capabilities and their high degree of computerization are considered then the organizations reluctance to adopt EDI appears to be even more irrational and incomprehensible. The phenomenon of organizations lagging behind adoption of IT regardless of their opportunities to do so is well known. What is missing so far are factors explaining the reason for this situation.

Throughout the history of IS research a number of explanatory factors have been found to be prevalent in relation to adoption and diffusion of IT in and among organizations. A summary of an extensive review of the literature on IOS and EDI and adoption and diffusion of IOS and EDI has resulted in a number of possible explanatory factors and models for adoption. One of these models comprises factors related to the organizational context, the environmental context, and the technological context. These three contexts or dimensions are the pivotal point for this study on adoption and diffusion of IOS in a Danish setting. Inherent in the three contexts is for example the influence on organizations from environmental factors such as action plans promoted by governmental institutions or by industry and trade associations and competitive market forces. From an internal point of view, the motivators for adoption of innovations in organizations focus on the operational benefits and human resources. Finally, the influence from innovation attributes related to the technology aspects is comprised in the third context.

This study is a longitudinal evaluation of the outcome of the Danish national 16-action plan for e-commerce. The reported data originate from more than half a decade starting with the political 15-statements, which gave a high priority to the use of information technology in businesses and administration. The 15-statement stressed the need for formulating an action plan for EDI and e-commerce. The next step was the launch of the 16-action plan for EDI and e-commerce. This action plan was operationalized in the TDP (TradeDocument Project) by the two major Danish business associations. The TDP which aimed at supporting the adoption and diffusion of EDI included nine companies, manufactures and wholesalers, in the Danish steel and machinery industry. As a part of this analysis of the impact of co-ordinated adoption and diffusion projects the outcome of TDP was evaluated during the autumn of 1. Based on the knowledge gained from the TDP, from previous research on IS adoption, and from EDI research in the 10s a survey instrument was developed to evaluate the status of the use of EDI (and e-commerce) in a business sector, which had been exposed to the 16-action plan and the TDP.

This study, which was practice driven in nature, started as an exploratory search for motivators for EDI adoption. The exploratory approach led to changes in focus of the fieldwork throughout the study. The first step, examination of the TDP, revealed that a number of factors had influenced adoption and non-adoption amongst the participating companies. The industry and trade associations, which initiated the project, expected that the TDP provided the optimal conditions for adoption and diffusion of EDI in the Danish steel and machinery industry and especially amongst the companies involved in the project. However, the interviews with the involved companies indicated that some of the participants had their own agendas. They were more interested in networking and exerting influence. The non-adopters were interested in obtaining knowledge of EDI. However, they remained non-adopters due to organizational constraints. After examining the influence of the co-ordinated adoption and diffusion initiatives, it was found prudent to focus more intensely on motivators for adoption. Based on the general attitude from governmental units and the industry and trade associations, specific knowledge from the TDP, and data from previous research, fifteen opinion data items covering a range of issues related to the organizational context, the environmental context, and the technological context were defined. These items were tested in a survey of the Danish steel and machinery industry.

Two objectives have guided this research, which explicitly answers the following three research questions

Objective A - To consider possible improvements of the present adoption models used in MIS research.

The corresponding research questions related to this objective were

- How are the explanatory variables related to motivators for EDI adoption defined in MIS research at present?

- Which models are used to explain motivation for IOS adoption at present?

Objective B - To identify motivators for adoption of IOS in a business sector dominated by small businesses.

The corresponding research question related to this objective was

- To which degree can the motivation to adopt IOS, exemplified by EDI, be explained by issues related to the organizational context, the environmental context, and the technological context?

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Conduct a SWOT analysis for the management of Pokemon, and provide them with a likely short term and long-term scenarios for Pokemon's range of products.

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Pokemon is the general name given to the many creatures found in the Pokemon universe. There are over 50 different types of Pokemon, and each type has a unique name (Pikachu, Charizard, etc.). These Pokemon are the stars of video games for Game Boy and Nintendo 64, trading card games and cartoons.

In the SWOT analysis, there are including the internal and external analyses. Strengths and Weaknesses are the internal factors; Opportunities and Threats are the external factors.

Strengths

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?An international chain/globalization

The Pokemon creators, along with Nintendo, first launched Pokemon for the world's best-selling Game Boy video game system in Japan in 16 and watched the original 150 creatures evolve a global cultural phenomenon. The franchise arrived in North America in September 18 and has grown into a multi-billion dollar industry worldwide.

?Product

In the target market, it able to capture the interest of their target group of children who desire the games/toys to be special and new design. Pokemon is a fantasy universe of characters who posses a diverse array of strengths, weaknesses and powerssome who evolve to become others. Pokemon represents an integrated approach to developing and maintaining interest by offering a range of products strongly associated with the Brand. Moreover, the toys can fit the children's multi-task playtime.

?Price

Most of Pokemon's merchandises are reasonably priced. It also appeals to the mass market.

?Extensive Distribution Network

The channels are well developed that the products become available for the customers. The customers can buy its products anywhere, even in Burger King, KFC or Supermarket.

?Variety of products

The Pokemon range of products includes trading cards, toys, home videos (on DVD and VHS), music CD's, video games, comics and story books and clothing.

?Unexpected Market Demand

The successful of the Pokemon's movies and TV show, it boosts demand for Pokemonmerchandise.

Weakness

lBad image

Unhealthy image brings a lot of criticism. One negative issue that more than 600 Japanese viewers of the TV series suffered seizures and nausea when they viewed one of the cartoon episodes. And the Pokemon is criticized as being unethical.

lPokemon is more attractive by Boys, although it's suitable for both sexes of children. At the current stage, children remain its key target customers.

lIf the child want to be the world's greatest Pokemon trainer, he has to collect every type of Pokemon trading cards and games. But first of all, he has to remember the characteristics of each creature. It's costly and timely for him.

lThe CD Rom-based games had even been popular with American children.

Opportunities

?Opening up new segments within existing markets.

Increasing market segments are fragmenting therefore development has to keep in touch with a wider diversity of customer needs.

?Opening up new distribution channels, such as marketing on the Internet. More customers have own PC and surf on Net. It'll enhance the degree of aggressive retailer cooperation.

?Develop a new market, such as Russia and Middle East.

Threats

?Standardization restricts product quality and value added

Safety regulations on the use and application of products, especially for kids will become more stringent. It might effect the products?strategies and the mix.

?Socialization

There has been much media and parental criticism, such as Pokemon is being unethical. Lawsuits from parents, negative press about the health effects of the cartoon, as well as the criminal and delinquent behavior exhibited by some Pokemon fans over the rare trading cards, provide plenty of scope for detractors.

?Technological and Style Obsolescence

The increasing rate of advances in technology is causing shorter and shorter product life cycles. The products will become obsolete due to technological change. Besides, the style of products should be modified continually due to the degree of attraction and modernness.

?Increasing competition

If faces competition from other toy companies, motion picture studios and other licensing companies and the uncertainty of public response to the company's properties, actual results or outcomes may differ materially for such forward looking statements.

In this case, one of competitor Fox Kids which is tackling Warner Bros. head-on with Digimon (Digital Monster) that is rapidly growing in popularity among Pokemon's largest target group.

?Different Culture

There's a large different of lifestyle or play habits between American Children and Asian Children, although they're still changing. The management may use different strategies for different customers.

After analysis, it provide the management with a likely short term and long term scenarios for Pokemon's range of products.

In the short term

The simple matrix, shown in Figure 1, that every product and /or activity is capable of being slotted into one of the four boxes. The Pokemon segment is likely in the mature stage of product life cycle in the short term. The market will mean limited future growth potential for the product. Marketing activity will be refocused upon defending the products position in the market place and increasing promotional activity focused upon encouraging pervious customers to repurchase newer products. The range of products available is likely to be increased to encourage upgrades and constantly refresh the brand. Special price promotions might be offered to stimulate purchase activity and defend against competitor activity.

And the Pokemon's products will in the cash cow, except games which are entering a period of low growth, still generating large amounts of cash but needing relatively little cash investment. Because of high market share over a period of years, cash cows enjoy economies of scale and high profit margins.

RELATIVE COMPETITIVE POSITION

LowHigh

HighwqW

MARKET

GROWTH

Low

Figure 1. The Boston matrix with the product life-cycle superimposed

In the long term

The Pokemon segment is likely in the decline stage of product life cycle in the long term. Careful analysis of the nature and extent of the decline phase should be made and actions taken to with reposition the product, or enter a phase of planned divestment with a reduction in sales and promotional activity. If the decline phase is critical, a decision should be made to immediately withdraw the product.

And the Pokemon's products will in the dogs which have low market shares in a low-growth market and tend to generate either a loss or a relatively low profit.

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Don't got one

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INTRODUCTION

Ethics is a very important aspect of the business world. The most important place to apply ethics is in the Human Resource function. When applied to business, ethics is generally defined as The rules or standards governing the conduct of a person or the members of a profession. This definition leaves many holes in which it is solely the employer's responsibility to fill. To me ethics is a very important thing. I believe that all businesses should be run under a strict guideline of ethical procedures. When applying this term to the business world I would personally define it as The rules and standards an employer uses to guide the direction of their employees. By this I am saying that the ethics an employer enforces will determine how any given employee will perform every function involved in going about their day to day business. Loose ethics will translate into decisions being based solely on the bottom line, without taking any external factors into consideration. On the other hand, having ethical guidelines that are to strict may cause workers performance to decline. It is very important that each employer look very closely at their business and decide how these rules and standards should be enforced.

There are many reasons why ethics should be important in our everyday lives. They are important in academic life because there is so little guidance for college students. Students have the freedom to make their own decisions. Whether to go out on a Thursday night and miss class on Friday is a personal decision, but deciding whether to not study and go out can lead to an ethical dilemma. By not studying a person may be inclined to cheat or cut corners. This is when a person with good ethics will do their best on their own. A person with loose ethics may cheat. This behavior will facilitate into the professional world. A person who cheated their way through college may be inclined to act in the same manner in the work place. Ethical behavior in the professional world is just as important as in academic life. How you act in the work place will directly affect individual job performance as well as how well the company's workers are getting along. A single individual and their actions could easily affect a whole company in a negative manner. Ethics play an equally important role in other situations such as politics, student organizations, and labor unions. All of these areas require a certain level of ethical behavior in order to operate in an appropriate manner. Essentially, without ethics no organization would be able to operate in a productive manner for any extended amount of time. It would simply fall apart on top of itself due to the behavior of the people that make it up.

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ARTICLES

PROFESSORS WHO SEE NO EVIL

The key issue in the article is that students today are not being taught the proper way ethics should apply. They are being taught that right and wrong depend solely on individual values and culture, when in reality right is always right and wrong will always be wrong. From an ethics stand point it is up to the professors to convey this message effectively.

BIG LABOR'S ENRON

The problem stated in this article has to do with insider trading. Senior officers were setting the new price of their own stocks. This raises plenty of ethical issues, as well as legal ones. The main problem here is that the senior officers should not be able to set their own stock price. Furthermore, during the November stock buyback they restricted who could sell their stock back. This is a perfect example of insider trading.

SUNBEAM- CHAINSAW AL

This article showcases how greed can become an ethical issue. Al Dunlap was the CEO of a major Company. In order to make his job performance appear to be outstanding and to enhance his own personal wealth he orchestrated an accounting scheme that made profits appear to be higher than they were. This is an extremely unethical thing to do. Not only is it bad for the company and the people who work for it, it also will effect the millions of shareholders negatively.

CITYBANK/AT&T

This article is not complete. An employee of Salomon Smith Barney named Jack Grumman changed his rating on AT&T stock in order to bring their business to his firm. This is extremely unethical. The information he changed, for his companies gain as well as his personal gain, is used by people when deciding where to invest. So instead of steering people away from a stock that they had said was not a very good one, they were telling people to buy. Again an example of a person trying to gain at the expense of others.

LT. COLONEL TWITTY

There are two main ethical issues at hand in this article. First, Twitty never should have lied about what had happened to his cruiser. Honesty between an employer and employees is key to being successful. Second, the people pushing for prosecution of Caucasian employees are now asking investigators to back off Twitty because of race. This is a double standard and it would be wrong to loosen rules for one race over another.

HIGH PROFILES IN TROUBLE

There is one thing I want to point out about this article. That is All of the people on this list were doing things in order to gain personally and to make themselves look good to the outside world. The more I learn the more I realize that greed or personal satisfactions are the greatest factor when looking at most ethics issues. This is why HR plays such a key role in the business world. It is up to HR to hire quality workers from the mailroom to the top floor.

TYCO

This example shows how unethical behavior can have a snowball affect in a company. The CEO is acting unethically in some of his business practices. In order to keep his secret he bribes other employees to keep quiet. So now one person's unethical behavior has turned into multiple people acting unethically. Once again, the illegal actions were caught and the company and its investors were hurt.

LITIGATION INC.

This is a slightly more difficult article to judge. Lawyers are "price gouging" clients in a way. While they do the work and plead the case, clients are not getting much in the way of settlements while the lawyer is making off with all of the money. The main ethical question here though is, when is enough enough. When do the lawyers stop suing? It is a matter of ethics.

MY POLICIES

I believe very firmly that success of a company will depend greatly on the ethics it instills in its employees. Although I will agree that in the short run an unethical company would succeed. If I were running the HR department I would start off by having a very clear and thorough mission statement. This is the basis on which your long term goals will be reached. The next thing I would do is to make sure every employee receives a copy of all local, state, and national laws concerning ethical behavior, as well as literature involving company policies. They would be discussed briefly in orientation, but at the same time I would stress their importance. Then the employees would be informed of how our company handles ethical issues. Every employee now has access to our mission statement, laws on ethics, and company policies. I would set up an ethics committee and explain to employees that any behavior or actions that may be in violation of any ethical guideline given to them will be brought before the committee. It is there that an employee can defend him/herself. The ethics committee will then deliberate and decide what course of action will be best for each individual situation. The committee will be made up of represenitives from all divisions of the company and will be culturally diverse. This is a very vague idea of a system that I believe would be fair and allow to the employees to act as they wish, knowing that there are standards to follow and that it is important to do the right thing all the time.

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Economists

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Karl Marx

Karl Marx's era was from 1818-188. He was more then just an economist, a historian, a sociologist. He held extreme views. Through his various skills he was able to analyse capitalism and the ways in which it affected the economies. According to Marx history is the struggle for power of competing classes based on their material interests in the production process. Marx saw capitalism as a specific and historically limited form of social organisation. The internal dynamics of capitalism, he argued would eventually create conditions ripe for its overthrow by the working class and the institution of a new form of a social organisation based on collective ownership. Max adhered to the labour theory of value the theory that the value of commodities ultimately depends on the human labour time expended in their productions. Marx added a new concept to explain how profits could be generated in a society built on equivalent exchanged of commodities and money. Under capitalism, labour power is treated as a commodity like any other; workers are paid according to the cost of their reproduction and maintenance. But workers in fact can produce an equivalent to their subsistence in only part of a working day. The difference between the labour workers spend producing for a capitalist and the labour time equivalent to the wages they actually receive Marx called surplus value. Here, he argued, was a scientific index of exploitation. But it was, Marx argued the workers who would get the last laugh. Capitalists, faced with competition, are continually driven to expand and mechanise production, thus eliminating some labour costs. But since labour is the ultimate source of value, capitalists, in effect, are cutting their own throats. Marx argued that over the long term the rate of profit would fall, while at the same time more and more people would be left without jobs. Capitalism would finally collapse when there is a combination of economic crises of increasing severity and the development of class-consciousness among workers.

Marx did have some influence on economic theories in the non-communist countries but the capitalist economic breakdown did not break down as much as he expected it would, nor did the rate of profit.

Adam smith

Essay help on economists

Adam Smith's era was from 17 170. Smith invested heavily into demonstrating that selfish intentions could lead to public good. He was very interested in showing how altruism could come out of self interest and to reveal how the self interest of private individuals could be transformed by the sleight of an invisible hand (the unfettered market) into social harmony and public benefit, producing the wealth of the nation in the best possible ways. Smith proposes that first on the list of the wealth of nations was the division of labour. He believes that the dramatic increases in productivity possible through the division of labour. He pointed out that the division of labour does not occur because individuals possess an overall perception of its ultimate benefit society. Rather, the division of labour occurs simply because it is in each individual's self interest to specialise and to exchange. Smith also believed that any government attempt to guide or to regulate the actions of individuals in the economic marketplace would end up doing more harm then good.

Marx's theories do not play much of a role in today's influence as his critics does not fit industrialised Western countries today where the state plays a large role and large corporations have been replaced the shop keepers. But his ideas on the wealth of nations make him remain a central figure in the development of economic thought.

John Maynard Keynes

John Maynard Keynes's era was from 188 146. Over the twenty-five years following the end of the First World War, Keynes transformed the way in which economics was viewed as a discipline and as an aspect of government policy. Keynes came up with the theory that the market is not a self-regulating mechanism. He believed that to bring the economy quickly out of depression and end high unemployment, some way of stimulating investment and capital expansion is needed; only by maintaining 'effective demand' a desire for goods and serviced among people who have the money income to pay for them can recessions be warded off. The natural entity to stimulate aggregate demand is the government using a combination of spending and regulation of tax-rates and money supply.

Keynes had a big influence on economic policies. This theory of his was not utilised by government policy makers for many years after the publication of his theories but keynesiam economics, as it is called, since the 150s, been a dominant force of government policy- making in the country and elsewhere.

Milton Friedman

Milton Friedman's era is starting from the 0th century. Friedman's standing contemporary economists drives primarily from his advocacy of the modern quantity theory of money and prices, of what has come to be known s monetarism the doctrine that the one crucial ingredient shaping short run economic fluctuations is change in the amount of money in circulation. The key to a healthy and non-inflationary economy, Friedman argued persistently over the last three decades, is a constant growth in the money supply. Monetary authorities, Friedman says, instead of tightening money during booms and loosing money during recessions should simply increase the money supply at a steady rate of between 5 percent a year. This was proven during the Great depression. Friedman also believes that the macroeconomy is in itself stable if left alone by the prying hand of government. His philosophy carries over into all areas of government intervention. He has pointed out time and again the unintended, negative effects of government intervention in the economy. His solution to many society's ills is a more competitive private market place, rather then increased government regulation, intervention and spending.

I don't think that Friedman he has had much influence yet on economic policies because of his opposition to government intervention.

 

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Legitimacy of the Patriot Act

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In the wake of the attacks of /11 many Americans were changed and an entire country was united by one single event. Never before in American history had one single act of terrorism inflicted so much damage not only to American lives but also to the American spirit. Many were left wondering how the most powerful country in the world with all its resources, technology, money could have let this happen and how truly vulnerable were the American people to such acts. Within weeks of /11 a drastic measure to insure that events like this would never happen again was taken. The USA Patriot Act PL 107-56 (Uniting and Straightening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Obstruct Terrorist) was made law. Although the USA Patriot Act is intended to secure and protect the American people and the American way of life, the benefits may not be worth the cost. Many may argue that in times of great terrorist threats an act such as this is needed, in times of extreme danger extreme measures must be taken. I on the other hand believe that although it is definitely necessary to take actions against terrorism, it is not fair to do so at the expense of the civil liberties of the people or a single group of people. This paper will first identify the formal players who took part in making sure that the Patriot Act would pass into law and then concentrate the effects of the new law on the American people.

As we all know the passing of a proposed act into an actual law is a long and for the most part non-successful process, which involves congress and the administration. More often then not proposed bills will never even make it to the president's desk, but this is not the case with the Patriot act. Not only was this entirely new anti-terrorism billed drafted with in a couple weeks of /11, but it was also passed buy 8-1 in the Senate and 57-66 in the House of Representatives with support from the President. As we have learned from the textbook, evidence from actual congress, but most importantly from the Game of Politics Simulation, it is very rare for a bill as controversial as the USA Patriot Act to pass to law with such ease. For example, controversial bills that were presented in the simulation (such as bill 06) went though many drafts written by the President's administration and different committees before it was even voted out of committee to be voted on by the Senate or House. Now imagine a bill just as controversial as 06 of the simulation, but 0 times longer, drafted perhaps by many people with different opinions, relating to an actual population of a country, and proposed in a time of intense uncertainty. With all these factors it is quit frankly amazing the speed for which USA Patriot Act became law.

Although formal players, such as President Bush, John Ascroft, members of congress, and the way in which it was presented as necessary for the protection of the country, played the most important part in the passing the Patriot Act, I believe that if the support of the people (informal players) were not there, such a law would have never passed. As evident in media coverage after /11 (another informal player), all of the

country could not believe that such an event could happen on American soil and most of America was willing to take drastic measures to insure that such an event would never happen again, even were even willing to give up some of their right in order for the government to better defend the nation against acts of terrorism. The atrocity of /11 in a way blinded the American people into believing that the only way to prevent an act like this from happening was to trust in the government to do the right thing and take the necessary steps and according the government that step was the Patriot Act. But now over one year later the true effects of this law can be seen.

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The results of this political decision are some that most Americans do not know about because it does not directly affect them. The USA Patriot Act is a new law that basically gives the national government expansive new powers to find and eliminate terrorist and terrorism in the United States. Some of the new powers granted to the government under this law are broadening the types of records that the government can obtain through ISP, distribution of 00 million dollars over the next years to the FBI's Technical Support Center (an arm of the FBI that takes care of technical surveillance), the ability to obtain private records without a court order when there is a relevance to terrorist activities, and an increase in roving wire taps. These are just a few of the many abilities granted to the government under the new law, but as can clearly be seen her, interfere directly with some civil liberties.

It is quit evident who the winner and losers are in regard to the decisions made in order to protect our country from the acts of terrorism by passing the Patriot Act. On the

long end of the stick is the American Government in general. First of more powers are now granted to the government and its many agencies in order to keep an eye on those who are believed to be terrorist and to take the necessary steps to prevent terrorism acts. Now more federal funds will be allotted to such bureaucratic organizations such as the FBI, CIA, but most importantly Department of Homeland Security, which will operate separately from any previous autocratic department.

On the short end of the stick however are is the general population who believe that their freedoms are being well protected when in fact it might be the exact opposite. Because of these new laws it is basically possible for any suspected terrorist to be apprehended and held. But at of the American population no other single group will loose more liberties then the Muslim population. A perfect example that reflects this opinion is the apprehension and detention of Ejaz Hieder, an editor of one of Pakistan's most influential newspapers and who at the time was a guest scholar at Brookings institution. On January 8, 00 he was stopped and apprehended buy two INS in Washington D.C. were he had been invited by US State department in order to speak about US-Pakistan relationships. Hieder was taken to a detention center interrogated and only finally let free when high ranking officials from the State Department intervened (Foreign Affairs, May/Jun00, Vol. 8 Issue , p8). Now if you can imagine this happening to a guest of the United States Government, just imagine what is happening to those in the Muslim population who have no government connections, are here on work or student visa, or even worse, are here illegally. If this were to have happened a white

American suspected of terrorism, or even another type of minority such as African-Americans or Latinos, civil liberties groups would have had a field day with the press. But it did not and for that reason very few people even heard about it.

Many may argue that because of the heightened security and danger of terrorist acts, minor problems like these are expectable in order for the better of the entire nation and protect American liberties. But how far will be to far. What about the liberties of those most affected by just laws and the Patriot Act? The country may be comfortable right now with the way thing are being run since the general population are not terrorist or Muslims for that matter and there for do not have to worry about the new and extended powers of the government. And who is to decide when the terrorist threat is neutralized and laws such as the Patriot Act are no longer needed? What will happen then? I fear that only after drastic deprivations of civil liberties will the American people truly start to feel the pain from such laws like the USA Patriot Act.

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