Honor in Shakespeare

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Honor is one of the most frequently occurring words in the play. Focus on three characters- most likely Hotspur, Falstaff, and Prince Hal- and discuss what honor means to each. Pay particular attention to: Hotspur's reactions in Act I, Scene iii, and throughout Act IV; to Falstaff's speeches on honor in Act V; and to Prince Hal's discussion of the drawers in Act II, Scene iv and his promises to King Henry in Act III, Scene ii. Then you could focus on the battle of Shrewsbury, where the honor of all three characters is tested. Explain how this is done, and what you learn about the characters as a result. Talk about how the pursuit or avoidance of honor guides the characters' action. In your summing up, discuss the relationship between kingship and honor, and between politics and honor. How does Shakespeare's exploration of the many definitions of honor affect your interpretation of the plot?

Many tragic heroes had honor which was either their downfall or their positive trait. In Shakespeare's Henry IV Part 1, Hotspur, a hot tempered traitor, makes honor his first priority for him and his family . Although the king praised him, he led a rebellion against him. Shakespeare creates Hotspur as a characters whose principle concern is for himself and honor which ironically causes them to make unprincipled decisions which eventually causes their downfall. Hotspur lives his life by the code of honor. Henry IV, the king at that time, honors and respects Hotspur more than his own son. When Hotspur does not give the prisoners that he had captured to the king, it is treason because he defies against the king. Hotspur says that he did not want to hand over the prisoners because his army had just fought a hard battle and were very proud of what they had done. When the servant came looking very clean and trimly dressed, they felt that if they gives the prisoners to him then Hotspur and his army would be giving away everything they had worked and fought for. Hotspur feels that the king attacks his honor when he orders those prisoner be sent to him. The king becomes angry because Hotspur had time to think about his decision and Hotspur still had not given the soldiers to him. The king says, " Send us your prisoners, or you will hear of it" (Henry IV Part 1, I, iii, 126). Brutus also believes that honor is what makes a man. He says, " For let the gods so speed me as I love the name of honor more than I fear death" (Julius Caesar, I, ii, 95-96). He thinks that killing Caesar is his duty because it will be for the good of all Romans. When the other conspirators come over to Brutus's house, Cassius tells everyone that they should make an oath to follow through with the plan to kill Caesar. Brutus disagrees and says that only people with evil intentions take oaths and that they are doing what is the right and just. When Brutus makes his speech after the killing of Caesar he says, " Believe me for mine honor, and have respect to mine honor that you may believe " (Julius Caesar, III, ii, 15-18). But killing your friend and colleague is not honorable, so consequently Brutus is not as honorable as he believes himself to be. Honor in both of these characters is what makes them act and think they way they do. Hotspur believes that he has been betrayed and wants to kill the king. Brutus wants to kill the king also because he feels that it will be for the good of all Romans. They do not think decisions through and eventually honor overrules other factors when they make decisions. When time comes for Hotspur and Brutus to make decisions, they turn out to be bad decisions which aren't thought through. Furthermore, Hotspur is a very poor decision maker. He decides to defy the king's orders, and by doing so commits treason in which some people can be executed. Hotspur decides that his family deserves more than they have already received for taking Richard out of the throne, but he does not take into account that Henry is the king and has a lot of power. Although the king respects and honors Hotspur more than his own son, he defies the king's authority and decides to take the side of his own family. When all of the conspirators gather together, Hotspur just ridicules some of the other conspirators at a time when cooperation is a necessity. He is very hot tempered and bases his decisions on his anger. What makes Hotspur a bad leader is that he is easily manipulated by Worcester, his uncle. Worcester makes all of the plans for the conspiracy and manipulates Hotspur into taking control of the operation. Equally, Brutus is also a poor decision maker. First of all, he decides to assassinate the king and in making that faulty decision, he makes other flawed decisions. He decides that Cicero, a wise and respected man, should not be in the conspiracy. The only reason Brutus did not want him in the conspiracy is that he did not want competition for the position as the leader of the conspiracy. When the other conspirators decide to kill Antony along with Caesar, Brutus disagrees because he believes that Antony will not cause problems for the future. The other conspirators try to give reasons for killing Antony, Brutus does not listen, interrupts Cassius in mid sentence, and just decides that they will not kill Antony. Cassius also manipulates Brutus just as Hotspur was by Worcester. Cassius flatters Brutus and provokes Brutus by telling him that it is his duty for his family is to kill the king. He says, " There was a Brutus once that would have brooked th' eternal devil to keep his state in Rome as easily as a king" (Julius Caesar, I, ii, 167-170). Both Hotspur and Brutus are manipulated when a part of their character is exposed by a conspirator. Hotspur and Brutus both take charge of their conspiracies to kill their leaders and when they do, they are not proficient leaders. They do not listen to others and do not cooperate with others. Hotspur and Brutus think of themselves and are very selfish. In addition, Hotspur and Brutus are both arrogant and egotistical. First, Hotspur believes that the king will ransom Mortimer from captivity in Wales for the prisoners. When the king gives an order, it has to be followed and Hotspur believes he can bargain with the king. Then Hotspur believes that if he can get Richard II off the throne then, he could get any king off the throne. Then when all the conspirators meet in Wales to make final the terms of their plot against king Henry and to determine how they will divide up the conquered kingdom, Hotspur ridicules Glendower to his face because he believes the he is better than Glendower. Also, Hotspur thinks he deserves more land than anyone else. His desire to be honorable propels him to be arrogant and conceited. Equally, Brutus is also stuck up in many ways. First, Cassius fawns towards Brutus to manipulate him for his own purposes. Cassius explains to Brutus that Caesar is no better than any other Roman, the Romans do not want an emperor, and that he has a duty to his family to bring down an emperor. Brutus believes all of this because he himself is jealous of Caesar and believes that he is better than Caesar. Also, when a person does not listen to other opinions in a situation, that shows this person believes he is always right and does not need input of others. Brutus displays this arrogance in all of the important decisions that affected the conspiracy. This arrogance led Brutus and Hotspur to be subordinate leaders and bad decision makers. Their excessive belief in honor played a role in their arrogance which crippled their leadership abilities. Brutus and Hotspur are characters who have exorbitant views of honor which actually causes them to act in opposition to their principles and rebel against their leaders. Their egos and their struggles for power makes them susceptible to manipulation and corruption. Their misinterpreted idea of honor affects their attitude and leadership abilities. Brutus and Hotspur build their lives around honor and expect everyone else to follow those same principles. They seem to value honor, but eventually do not commit honorable acts. When people are easily manipulated and corrupt, they are not reliable leaders. Leaders can not take into account just honor in making decisions. This will lead them to view ideas in only one way. Leaders should take into account other factors when they make decisions. For example, Adolf Hitler, the leader of the Nazis looked at problems in one way. He believed Jews were the cause of Germany's economic problems and did not take into account that Germany was to blame for the first world war and had to pay reparations for it. Hitler's arrogance and his own definition of honor caused him to make decisions looking at them one way just as Hotspur and Brutus did. Hitler was also obsessed with the Aryan race. He believed the Aryan race, Germans, were superior to all other races and did not even listen to what other had to say. The narrow way he looked at his views made him an unreliable leader and bad decision maker. As we choose the leaders for our country, we should try to evaluate wha

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France

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Where should I go on vacation this summer? Where is somewhere that has educational features and is fun for the family at the same time? Well, I'll give you an answer to all of your questions. GO TO FRANCE! French history goes back to prehistoric times, and every century has left a record, giving France one of the worlds finest national heritages. France has been the number one tourist destination for several years now. The Centre national dart et de culture Georges-Pompidou, better known as Beaubourg, beats all records with more than eight million visitors a year. The Eiffel Tower has more than six million. The Arc de Triomphe is the most visited historic monument. The cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris, the Muse du Louvre (five million visitors a year) and the Muse dOrsay, are some of the famous places which have contributed to Frances renown. But every part of France has remarkable sites and historical monuments. The pont du Gard, built by the Romans, the Citde Carcassonne (see above) and Mont-Saint-Michel begun in the 5th and 8th centuries, the cathedrals at Reims and Chartres, built in the 1th and 1th centuries, illustrate the engineering skill of the builders which still makes visitors gasp in admiration. These are only a very few examples among thousands of churches, chapels, cloisters, stately homes, museums and galleries which can be visited all year round. For 0 years, France has enriched the nations heritage with dramatic new buildings. The Citdes sciences et de lindustrie, the Grande Arche and especially the Pyramid at the Louvre have become extremely popular with visitors to Paris. A different kind of museum you can visit is the Futuroscope at Poitiers which is future oriented and focuses on new and coming technologies

Today, France produces more films than any other country in Europe. Going to the movies is increasingly popular with young people who love American films. The Palais du Festival in Cannes on the Croisette. Cannes is the worlds most famous movie festival.Okay,Okay if that's not enough to get you to go to France than here is a few more reasons. Even though France is roughly the size of Texas, it offers all different kinds of scenery. You can cross the whole country from east to west or north to south in less than a day traveling by car or train. France has 4,400 miles of highway, more than any country except the U.S., Australia and Germany. The mountain ranges are all ages. The oldest ones, like the Massif Central with volcanic relief, the Vosges, Ardennes and Armorican Massif, are recognizable by their rounded summits. The most recent , the Pyrenes, Jura, Alps and Corsica, dominate the landscape. The French countryside is made up of huge basins, plains and plateaus which are traversed by major rivers. Most are fertile regions which are only moderately hilly. The coastline is ,844 miles long. The landscape varies from cliffs in the north, to rocky outcroppings and then dunes in the west on the Atlantic side, and a low and rocky shoreline on the Mediterranean. France also includes overseas territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans, as well as in South America. Most French cities have downtown areas dating back several centuries. The oldest parts usually include squares, town halls, gardens, and churches or cathedrals. In the 0th century, suburbs mushroomed on the outskirts of the cities.

1. JOB OPPORTUNITIES

Knowledge of a second language is essential over 60occupations. Canada, officially bilingual, is our most important trading partners and requires labeling in English and French on all imported products. More than 1,00 French companies have subsidiaries in the U.S., and France is the largest recipient of U.S. foreign investments. France is a world leader in the development of a modern telecommunications, a market with explosive growth potential. The European Union, the second largest trading bloc in the world, recognizes French as an official languages. Think about the many opportunities with the airlines, import-export companies, and other international businesses. French is also a very useful language if you are thinking of working at the United Nations (where French is the second most widely used language) or for the United States Government in the foreign service. Here in the United States, when you know French, you could become a French teacher, an interpreter or a translator.

. OTHER CULTURES

French is the first or second language in more 40 countries and is spoken by 15 million people around the world, on every continent. Because French is a foreign language of choice for so many people in the world, knowing French will also increase your chances of communicating in a non-English-speaking country. You can use French to develop international friendships, as well as to communicate via internet.

. SPORTS

In French is always an official language to announce events, winners, and medals at the Olympic Games, including the 16 Summer Olympics in Atlanta. If you live near the Quebec border, you can also follow hockey and baseball games in French. Automobiles races (Le Mans and Monte Carlo), horse racing (Long champ), tennis tournaments (French Open), and the Tour de France (long distance bicycle race) engage fans all around the globe. When you know French, the international world of sports is open to you.

4. IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH...

From 40 to 50% of English vocabulary comes from French. The study of French will also enhance your grammar skills, and your increased proficiency in English will greatly improve your scores on the verbal section, of the SAT and the ACT. As you develop greater skills in French, you also sharpen your skills in English.

5. CRITICAL AND CREATIVE

It will also increase your problem-solving skills and improve your memory, self-discipline and self-esteem. Because progress is very easy to measure, you can quickly take pride in your new abilities. Knowing French can help you attain a number of important life skills.

6. TRAVEL

France is the most visited destination in the world with 67 million tourists in 17. Paris was recently named by Fortune Magazine as one of the top ten global cities. When you speak French, you can be an educated tourist, ask for directions, get your own hotel room or tell a French friend about the United States.

7. OPENING THE DOORS TO ART, MUSIC, FASHION, CINEMA...

As you quickly realize when you look at the foreign film section of your local video store, France is one of the most prolific producers of international films. The Cannes International Film Festival annually attracts the attention of the world when the best films, directors and actors are named. When you understand French, you dont have to rely on subtitles to enjoy a French film.

8. LITERATURE

People around the world are familiar with Les Misrables, The Three Musketeers, 0,000 Leagues Under the Sea, The Little Prince, and The Stranger. In fact, France has won more Nobel Prizes for literature than any other country. The French are also admired for their great philosophers, such as Descartes and Pascal, Rousseau, Voltaire, Camus, and Sartre. When you read French, you can enjoy these works and authors in the original.

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France, the worlds fourth leading economic power

France is now the fourth richest country in the world after the U.S., Japan and Germany. It has .5 million companies employing more than six million people in industry and more than 14.4 million in commercial and service activities. Some industries are performing particularly well the agro-food and aircraft sectors both rank third in the world. Automobiles, electronics, chemicals and tourism have registered strong growth. The so-called tertiary sector (that is, transportation, trade, services, etc.) employs 68% of the working population. It is an important sector accounting for 67.5% of the countrys wealth. For the past few years, France has been one of the top three countries most attractive to foreign investors. They make money available to French industries so that they can grow more. Like every other nation, France sells products to other countries in the world. It also buys from them too. If it sells more products than it buys, it has what is called a trade surplus. Since 18, Frances results have been positive, confirming that French businesses are competitive all over the world. This surplus reached 1 billion francs in 16.

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Rise of the Nazi Party

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The Nazi Party, led by Hitler, was by 15 the most adulated party in Europe. This was due to their ability to use both the recurring tragedies that beset Germany after World War One and the incapability of the Weimar Government to counter effect them, to their advantage. Their success can mainly be attributed to the Great Depression, which made many dissatisfied with the present, and anxious for the future, ready to turn to the strong leadership the Nazis offered in this time of chaos. They rose to prominence and eventually to power in a time when Germany was constantly faced with one crisis after another, the public desperate for a restoration of their nation.

Using scapegoats as the target for all Germany's political, economic and social problems, the Nazis promised to rid Germany of these threats and establish a great nation. They blamed the politicians and the Jews for the hated Treaty of Versailles, the French invasion of the Ruhr, the economic misery of the hyperinflation in1, and the great depression that hit in1. Disillusioned with these events, and the political turmoil in the government, the German people were looking for new solutions. Nazism thrived on this urgency, and through propaganda and Hitler's immense charisma, they appealed to the public as a saviour figure.

The Nazi Party's policies were constructed to attract a wide social base in German society. They were based mainly on popular anxiety, prejudices and ethnocentrism. The humiliation and resentment of the Treaty of Versailles was felt by many, so Hitler used this as a focus for the problems that beset Germany after the war. This enabled the Nazis to bring out people's anger and fear, and through this, their support.

Acting upon the fear of communism and the prejudice of Jews, the Nazis took a strong stance against both. They put out communist uprisings through violence, and by doing this gained a following, especially from the middle-class who would be most effected by the rule of communism. Local authorities also overlooked the violent activities of the Nazis, as they too feared the communist threat. Hitler hammered the message that the "Jewish menace"(1) was destroying Germany's potential as a great nation, as they corrupted the countries political and economic worlds. People willingly accepted somebody to blame for the problems facing themselves and their country.

Essay help on Rise of the Nazi Party

The German public also found themselves losing faith in the Weimar Republic and the democratic brand of government on account of the French occupation of their territory and the major economic crisis that followed. The French invasion of the Ruhr brought shame and misery to huge amounts of the German people. When the hyper-inflation hit, people were faced with starvation, eviction and illness. The invasion which caused the hyperinflation period was a direct result of the signing of the Versailles treaty, as it was because Germany could not make the repayments that the French came in and took over the richest part of their country. The Nazis grasped this opportunity to appeal to the public as a strong party who would pull Germans out of the misery they were facing, unlike the Weimar government who was allowing for this anguish. They did this through propaganda, one of the forms being posters stating, "First bread, then reparations"()

Democracy was seen more and more as a weak form of government, unable to cope with the crises that were continually facing Germany. The Nazis took advantage of this growing opinion, asserting themselves as a strong authoritarian leadership who would gain the control needed to resolve the crisis. Considering democracy had only been introduced in Germany in 118, and the public was used to obedience to a dictator, the cards played on the Nazis table.

Although the Nazi Party was building itself up constantly, it wasn't until 1 when the Great Depression hit that they gained a substantial following.The economic crisis of the Great Depression had horrendous outcomes, leaving the German public faced with an extremely high rate of unemployment. The way of life reached an all time low, and people were looking for new solutions, new leaders, new parties and perhaps even a new regime. "As the dole queues lengthened and Germany slid deeper into depression, more and more voters turned to political parties which rejected the Weimar Republic and offered their own brands of dictatorship."() The Nazi Party, under Hitler used this to their full benefit, taking the opportunity to blame the Weimar politicians who caused this. They drew the German people's attention to the political turmoil in the government, pointing out their ineffectual way of dealing with the economic crisis. The Nazi Party, on the other hand, presented themselves as "strong and dynamic leaders"(4) who would pull Germany out of this mess. The Nazi Party's support grew from .8% in 18 to 7.% in 1, signifying the way in which they could use people's anxiety, caused by crises, to gain support.

The Great Depression was a stroke of luck for the Nazi Party. Through this people turned to them, and they effectively made use of this by voicing their promises to increase voter support. The Nazi Party was able to promote policies that would appeal to all levels of German society. They promised agricultural reform for the farmers, respect for rural people, employment for the workers and economic stability (which appealed to the upper class, as they feared the increasing influence of the working class). The Nazi campaign also focused much on what was wrong with other parties and how they had brought about the Great Depression. This angered people who were already unsettled, and influenced them to turn to a new leader.

Hitler, as the leader of the Nazi party, drew the public support with his charismatic personality, and his ability to "move the masses."(5) He voiced the Nazi Parties ideals with such emotion, that it created nationalistic fervour by those who went and saw him speak. He spoke of more than mere economic recovery, but a national revival. He saw Germans as "the greatest people on earth"(6), and sympathised with them, reassuring them that "It is not your fault that you were defeated in the war and have suffered so much since. It is because you were betrayed in 118 and have been exploited ever since". (7) Hitler promised to remove the constraints of the hated Treaty of Versailles, to reunite Germany, to give Germany a respectable international front and restore her honour. In times of great crisis and conflict, the Nazi party was aware that people turned to this great strength and leadership, and took full advantage of it. For they as leaders provided "the sight of discipline in a time of chaos, the impression of energy in an atmosphere of universal hopelessness."(8)

Although through the Great Depression the Nazi party's votes increased dramatically, they still didn't hold an absolute majority in parliament. What enabled them to rise to power was the political turmoil in the democratic system of government, and the way in which their opponents drastically underestimated Hitler. During 1, the main stream democratic parties were falling apart rather than working together to unite against Nazism, for they "were much too divided and short sighted to combine against a common danger which…(threatened to)…overwhelm them."() They were unable to provide the strong leadership Germany needed in times of nation crisis; this caused the German people to turn to the Nazi Party. In 1 Von Paper, the former government of 57 days, persuaded President Hidenburg to appoint Hitler Chancellor, reassuring him that Hitler would be a, "Chancellor in chains". (10) Hitler, supported by the Nazi party, now had a position of power that could lead them to "take control of first the parliament and then the nation."(11)

The crisis of the Reichstag fire assisted them in doing so. Through this, the Nazi party was able to appeal to the public's fear of communism, and enabled them to have The Protection of People and State signed. This gave Hitler more control in parliament, and the power to wipe out any political opposition. By 1 the Nazi party were in power of the parliament, along with the nationalists, in form of a coalition government. The Nazis took full advantage of the division in the government, and on these grounds were able to pass through parliament The Enabling Law. Democracy was destroyed and Hitler followed by the Nazi Party, now had absolute power a dictatorship.

Hitler and the Nazi party gained power by the effective way they used the continual crises Germany faced in the period following World War One, and the conflict in the Government. In a Nazi Party member's own words, "All that serves to bring about catastrophe…is good, very good for us and our German revolution."(1) It was essentially the hit of the Great Depression that caused people to turn to the Nazis. However, power could not have been achieved without their display of strong leadership in a time of anarchy or their immense ability to act on these tragedies.

(1) Book 1 Unit 1 VCE Twentieth Century History, p.4.5

() Ibid, p..11

() Ibid, p.5.4

(4) Ibid, p.5.5

(5) Ibid, p.4.11

(6) Ibid, p.5.8

(7) Ibid, p.5.8

(8) Ibid, p.5.

() Ibid, p.5.16

(10) Ibid, p.5.1

(11) Ibid, p.5.14

(1) Ibid, p.5.6

K.J.Mason. A History of Germany 118-145 Republic to Reich, McGraw-Hill book company Sydney 16

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Albert camus

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Albert Camus was born into an impoverished family of Mondovi, Algeria in 11. His father was a self educated member of the work force and his mother was illiterate and deaf. His father died in World War One and he and his mother moved to Algiers and lived with his uncle because they could not support themselves. Camus attended the University of Algiers and sustained himself through working odd jobs. He lived there until he publicly criticized the French colonial government of Algiers and was forced to leave the country. Camus, a Parisian in the midst of the Second World War, began writing for an illegal French loyalist newspaper called Combat, the purpose of this paper was to organize sabotages and ambushes against the occupying Germans. This is the setting in which Camus wrote his most famous work The Stranger. It is important to understand the circumstances of which Camus wrote this novel in order to fully understand what it means and what inspired it.

The Stranger was written in a time where, Camus felt, all hope was gone and the remnants of it were useless annoyances, disrupting logical thought. This is noticeably evident as a main focus in the last chapter of the book when Monsieur Meursault refuses to turn to God or the persistent minister for help or faith before his execution. Meursault felt that the Minister's nagging idea of being saved and that hope still existed disturbed him during his final days where he could think freely. This is an extension of The Stranger's main underlying idea of existentialism, a philosophy Albert Camus was famous for.

Existentialism is the idea of human indifference to the rest of the world, the idea that things exist but have no meaning for humans, that there is no true "meaning" of life. This was actively portrayed throughout the book by the main character of Meursault who was indifferent from the world around him, unattached to most emotional feeling. He also displayed another one of Camus' ideas known as Absolute Freedom, this accounts for his "freedom" from emotional concernedness. In the first chapter, during the procession of his mother's funeral, Meursault dwelled on the fact of how hot the sun was. Meursault was a logical man and was concerned with physical things. He was unlike people he considered irrational and deeply concerned with emotions. Things that most people would consider traumatic and "life-altering", Meursault seemed unattached and unchanged. This is most noticeable when Meursault talks of how his life is the same as before his mother died. Meursault also meets his love interest, Marie and spends the day with her, swimming and watching a comedy, the day after his mother's funeral. The next day Meursault smoked a cigarette and looked over the main street of the town, from the balcony of his apartment, watching as people went about there lives, just as they always had.

Meursault befriended his neighbor Raymond Sintes, who was rumored to be a pimp and was a compulsive liar. Raymond wanted to write a letter to his unfaithful ex-girlfriend to make her feel bad for him, however Raymond was unable to produce a letter that would be effective, so he asked Meursault to write it for him. Meursault agreed and wrote the letter and Raymond tells Meursault they are now "pals". This sequence of events sets up the storyline for the rest of the novel, but is irrelevant to the underlying meaning of the book. The main point of this novel is not the events that occur but how Meursault reacts (or does not react) to them.

Raymond told Meursault that he and Marie were invited to go to a friend's (Masson) beach house with him and Meursault accepts. Once at the beach the group had lunch early and Masson, Raymond, and Meursault take a walk down the beach. They notice two Arabs and Raymond recognized one as his mistress's brother. Raymond recalled seeing them while waiting for the bus to the beach and suspected they are following him. All the men, excluding Meursault, get into a fight. Masson and Raymond manage to beat the Arabs to the ground where they laid still until one of them pulled a knife and cut Raymond's arm and mouth. The Arabs retreated and Raymond wanted to see a doctor immediately, and was taken there by Masson. Meursault stayed with the women at the house. Raymond and Masson came back soon after they left, and Raymond was all bandaged up. Raymond wanted to go for a walk on the beach, probably to look for the Arabs, and Meursault followed him out.

They see the Arabs again, Raymond now has a revolver and asks Meursault if he should shoot them, Meursault essentially said no and took his gun from him. Raymond said that he was going to go start a fight with the Arab again and if the Arab pulled a knife for Meursault to shoot him. During this time, the oppressive sun beats down on the main character and the lazy waves lull Meursault into a drunken state.

The Arab does draw the knife and Meursault immediately shoots him, he notices that the shot had shattered the repressive silence of the beach and the harmony of the day, not that he had just killed someone. After pausing for a few seconds Meursault shoots the Arab four more times, completely detached from what he is doing. This part of the novel was written excellently. Camus simply but descriptively painted the entire scene on the beach as long and drawn out, and oppressive, making the sun's heat, the sand, and "lazy, glaring waves" almost into characters in this part of the novel, all working against the main character. Not only does this show Camus' talent as a writer but it also shows Meursault's recurring concern for logical, physical things such as the weather. Meursault kills a man, one he hadn't known at all, and all he can think about is the unbelievable heat of the sun. This is a reiteration of his concern for physical things and lack of concern for emotional or disturbing events that is shown during his mother's funeral.

Meursault was arrested and put on trial for murder; his sentence if convicted would be death. Once on trial the validity of whether or not he killed a man was not questioned, nor were his reasons. Throughout the trial the opposing lawyer was examining Meursault and asking him of his mothers death, how he felt, the fact he saw a comedy the night after, why he had put her in a retirement home, and other questions that were irrelevant to the trial but displayed Meursault as insensitive and a threat to society. Meursault answered all these questions vaguely and seemed disinterested. Meursault's lawyer completely contradicts what the prosecutor had said and told the jury that he was a good citizen, a model son, one who cares for others and grieves for his mother. Meanwhile Meursault sits listening to other people describing him acting as if he was a spectator to the trial and not actually in it. Meursault realizes that his self image is controlled by other people, that despite what he does he cannot control what people think of him.

The jury chose to believe the prosecutor after hearing his negative summary of Meursault. Meursault knows that if the jury had chosen to side with him it still would not be true justice as neither lawyer accurately described him, it was impossible for the Jury to make the "right" decision. The jury really just had picked which story sounded better.

Meursault was put into a prison cell, until his scheduled execution. At first the only thing Meursault could he could think about was

"…escaping the machinery of justice, seeing if there's any way out of the inevitable."(Camus 108)

Later on in his time in prison Meursault recognized these ideas of hope really nuisances and a waste of time. He believed they distracted him from thinking logically and trying to understand his life. In his time in prison before his execution Meursault was finally enlightened with what his whole life meant, nothing. Nothing, and he was happy of it. He understood that everyone dies and when they do doesn't really matter. He understood that he had been accused of a murder and then executed because he didn't cry at his mother's funeral. He understood everybody has or will die, that death is the only certainty in life. He understood his death would have the same impact as his mother's, none, life would be the same. He understood that "Nothing, nothing mattered…" (11).

At the end of the novel Meursault is at one with himself, his life, and the "…gentle indifference of the world."(1).

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Assess the contribution and impact of Tiberius as princeps

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Assess the contribution and impact of Tiberius as princeps

•After Augustus's death Tiberius reluctantly took on the role as princeps

•He started off with great promise for his dealings with mutinies among the frontiers and his contribution to foreign policy was carried out with real statesmanship (Tacitus admits to this)

•However his trust of the lecherous Sejanus and his retirement to Capri (with his minor building program), prove to have left the most impacting marks on his career

Custom writing offers papers on Assess the contribution and impact of Tiberius as princeps

Tiberius' Foreign Policy (provincial and frontier)

Tiberius' government of the empire was carried out with real statesmanship. Even Tacitus admits this

Provincial Policy

Tiberius recognised Rome's responsibility for the welfare of provincials, and would tolerate no abuses by governors or the Roman business class

Maintained strict discipline of troops in the provinces secured frontiers by diplomacy if possible

-Tacitus "Tiberius was happier to have secured peace by prudent negotiation than if he had fought a victorious war

Paid special attention to his choice of governors; retained many governors at their posts for extended periods, to increase efficiency

Sought to maintain justice not only for provincials but also for Roman citizens within the provinces

Maintained strict supervision of imperial legates to avoid oppression; prosecutions of governors and procurators charged with extortion were strict

Initiated road and bridge building, and established new settlements in Syria, Spain, Moesia, Dalmatia and Pannonia

Generous to provincial cities during disasters eg earthquakes

Avoided interfering in senatorial provinces, but kept a close eye on their administration

Checked the plundering of the equestrian tax companies; protected Egypt from excessive taxation

-Tacitus "He ensured also that the provinces were not harasses by new impositions and that old impositions were not aggravated through official acquisitiveness or brutality."

Did not encourage the worship of himself in the provinces

-From Tacitus To have my statues worshipped among the gods in every province would be presumptuous and arrogant. Besides, the honour to Augustus will be meaningless if it is debased by indiscriminate flattery. As for myself, senators, I emphasise to you that I am human, performing human tasks."

Gave provincial assemblies larger degree of autonomy

Tiberius' policy of leaving governors in office for long periods in order to benefit the provincials fell down when he made a poor judgement about a governor

Eg 10 years was too long for Pontius Pilatus (6-6) who was governor of Judaea at the time of Christ's crucifixion

Pontius Pilatus made a number of serious mistakes, provoking the inhabitants unnecessarily, and it took the governor of Syria, Vitellius, to conciliate the Jews after Pilatus was sent to Rome to stand trial

The senate resented his guidance and control in the provinces and were particularly affronted when he encroached on the senatorial sphere by refusing to permit a change of proconsuls for Asia and Africa and keeping the same men there for 6 years

The Influence of Sejanus on Tiberius

Tiberius' trusted adviser

After death of Germanicus, Tiberius planned to promote his own son Drusus to secure succession for him

In AD 1, Drusus' nd consulship, and in next year granted tribunician power

This embittered faction loyal to Germanicus and didn't suit the capable prefect of Praetorian Guard, L. Aelius Sejanus, who had become Tiberius' trusted adviser

Sejanus had been joint commander of the Guard with his father, and had served Augustus; accompanied Drusus to Pannonia during revolts of AD 14 and from ad 17 was sole prefect of Guard

Sejanus' ambition

Tacitus Sejanus "concealed behind a carefully modest exterior an unbounded lust for power."

Since Drusus suspected Sejanus' designs and resented his influence over his father, he had to be removed

To do this would not ensure Sejanus' rise to power, due to the abundance of members of the imperial house (Sejanus planned to remove these individuals at intervals)

Seduction of Livilla and death of Drusus

Sejanus seduced Livilla (wife of Drusus) and together they poisoned Drusus

Tiberius never got over Drusus' death in , became more morose, and came to depend on Sejanus to an even greater extent

Tiberius' retirement to Capri

Tiberius now made serious mistake

Retired to island of Capri, tired of plotting factions and hostility at court

Tacitus says Sejanus urged him to do so as he would control access to Emperor and most of correspondence [no evidence of truth in Tacitus' suggestions eg. Tacitus went to satisfy his perversions, to escape his bullying mother Livia]

Tiberius' government from Capri as efficient as ever, although his removal allowed Sejanus free rein with his intrigues

Sejanus saves Tiberius' life

Tiberius, Sejanus and servants dining in natural cavern when a rock-fall threatened the emperor's life

Sejanus protected Tiberius from falling boulders

This further increased Sejanus' power over Tiberius

From that time "Tiberius believed him disinterested and listened trustingly to his advice, however disastrous." Tacitus

Downfall of Sejanus

With the death of Livia, Sejanus appeared to be moving closer to the throne

1.He had control of the Praetorian Guard as sole prefect

.He had control of the senate as he controlled communications to and from Tiberius at Capri

.He was engaged to the granddaughter of Tiberius

4.He was granted proconsular imperium

5.He was honoured with statues and games

When it appeared that Tiberius was looking to Agrippina's youngest son (and his grandson through the adoption of Germanicus) Gaius the last son who had not been persecuted as yet by Sejanus ( eldest sons were exiled), Sejanus supposedly plotted to kill Tiberius (some say he plotted to kill Gaius)

Tiberius was alerted to the plot, and to the fact that Sejanus and Livilla had poisoned his son Drusus 8 years previously, by Antonia (mother of Germanicus and Claudius and Livilla; grandmother of Gaius)

Tiberius had to be very careful as Sejanus was in a very powerful position

Tiberius used Macro, the prefect of the Vigiles, to facilitate the destruction of Sejanus by giving him a letter to be read in the senate denouncing Sejanus as a traitor to Rome

Sejanus was arrested, taken to prison and executed immediately

From the death of Sejanus to the death of Tiberius, the period is referred to by Tacitus as the 'Reign of Terror'

Tacitus calls this a time of sheer crushing tyranny as many people were executed

Friends and family of Sejanus were executed

Sejanus himself had caused the deaths of many people through treason trials Agrippina, Nero Caesar and Drusus Caesar had all been imprisoned or exiled and then they died through suicide and starvation

See Tiberius' Administration in folder

Building Program

Tiberius did not conduct an extensive building program nor did he use buildings to increase his popularity and personal glory as Augustus had done

He completed many of the buildings begun by Augustus, restored buildings but did not put his own name on them

He did erect a temple to Augustus and a barracks for the Praetorian Guard

In the provinces he supervised the construction of utilitarian projects such as roads, bridges and aqueducts

The Death of Tiberius AD 7

Tiberius did not return to Rome but continued to rule from Capri until he died at the age of 78

StrengthsWeaknesses

Continuance of Augustus' arrangements as much as possible

Excellent civil administration

ɧAlleviated food shortages

ɧMaintained law and order in the city through the city prefect

ɧGave substantial relief to help victims of an amphitheatre tragedy and a fire on the Aventine

ɧCut down public expenses erected few public buildings and reduced gladiatorial shows

StrengthsServility of senators little co-rule, dependence on Tiberius

Treason trials and growing numbers of delatores

Crisis as a result of Germanicus' death

Influence of Sejanus and elimination of members of imperial family

Retirement of Tiberius to Capri alienation of senate

Weaknesses

ɧTook measures to safeguard the countryside from brigandage

ɧReduced sales tax

ɧChose officials carefully

Attempt to work with the senate

ɧTook no exceptional honours

ɧUpheld traditional rights

ɧTreated it with respect

ɧConsulted it

ɧExtended its administrative and legal functions

Provincial and frontier policies

ɧMaintained peace and prosperity

ɧSettled disputes in provinces fairly

ɧGave extensive tax relief after earthquake damage

ɧBuilt roads and bridges

ɧBuilt public buildings in provinces

ɧChose best men wherever possible

ɧMaintained thorough discipline, loyalty and efficiency in armiesVengeance taken on Sejanus' supporters

Gaius given no training for public life contributed to difficulties of his reign

Praetorian Guard conscious of increased power repercussions for future influence on succession

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