Descarte

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In this essay, I propose to explain Descartes's system of methodic doubt. It will be necessary to look at his thoughts throughout his work in "The meditations". I will also show how Descartes subjected to doubt, all that could be possibly doubted, and arrived at the indubitable proposition: Cogito ergo sum, or I think, therefore I am. I will also explain how Descartes proceeded from this basis to prove the existence of God. Finally, I will conclude with how these two propositions together, for Descartes, established the certainty of human knowledge.

Descartes devised his system of methodic doubt in order to discover an indubitable belief, which he could use as a certain, and secure foundation as the basis for knowledge. For Descartes it was necessary to look inside himself at all the beliefs he once held as true, and subject them to the strongest of doubts. For the purpose of freeing himself from all preconceived opinions, he allowed himself to believe that all his past beliefs were false and imaginary, as he states in the first meditation: " So, for the purpose of rejecting all my opinions, it will be enough if I find in each of them at least some reason for doubt." (Cottingham 1984, p12). This provided Descartes with the easiest path by which to lead the mind away from the senses. In considering how far doubt can be extended, he begins by questioning his sense perception.

Descartes realises that everything that he has up till now accepted as true has been acquired either from the senses or through the senses. However there have been times when he has found that his senses can deceive, such as when objects may appear differently from various points of view, and that therefore it is highly probable that other things which appear certain through the senses may in reality be illusions. On further reflection, Descartes ponders the proposition of being asleep or awake. He wonders if this is something that cannot be doubted. However he soon realises that there have been times when he has been asleep and dreaming of the same experiences he had when awake. Descartes argues: "How often asleep at night, am I convinced of just such familiar events-that I am here in my dressing-gown, sitting by the fire-when in fact I am lying undressed in bed!" (Cottingham 1984, p13). Descartes comes to realise that dreaming and reality are so blurred that he cannot know if anything occurring is true or false and that therefore the external world may be an illusion. Descartes thus asserts that all the knowledge derived from the senses cannot be regarded as absolutely certain.

Descartes then considers the propositions of mathematics and the fact that a square has four sides and that two and three always makes five. This he perceives to be true whether he is asleep or awake and it appears that this cannot be doubted. On further consideration, however, Descartes considers the possibility that God may have brought it about that he just imagines these things are true, that God is making his mind incorrect when he adds two and three or counts the sides of a square. He further imagines that God is causing him to have sensations in his mind of the things he perceives around him. However when considering God as supremely good, Descartes finds it hard to believe that this supreme good being would deceive, therefore, Descartes invents the idea of an evil demon who is deceiving him, Descartes says of the evil demon: " I shall think that the sky, the air, the earth, colours, shapes, sounds and all external things are merely the delusions of dreams which he has devised to ensnare my judgment" (Cottingham 1984, p13). Descartes introduces this idea of the evil demon in order to prevent the return of the former beliefs previously called into doubt. Therefore at the end of the first meditation, Descartes is now in the position where he has put aside all his beliefs as not being fully certain. Thereafter within his second meditation he manages to limit the spread of doubt brought about by the evil demon hypothesis.

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Eventually, after consideration of all the beliefs he has doubted and set aside, Descartes realises that there is one thing he is doing all the time, and that is using his mind to think. For Descartes, by the very procedure of imagining an evil demon and the fact that he is thinking, establishes that he exists. This becomes for him the one sure and certain proposition on which to base his knowledge. Descartes considering the evil demon deceiving him states: "In that case I too undoubtedly exist, if he is deceiving me, and let him deceive me as much as he can, he will never bring it about that I am nothing so long as I think I am something." (Cottingham 1984, p17). This forms the basis of Descartes belief in the certainty that if nothing else, he exists. The point here is that it is impossible to doubt the truth of this proposition, therefore for Descartes the entire context of human knowledge consists upon this single proposition: "Cogito ergo sum", or, I think therefore I am. Even if he is dreaming, or God or an evil demon is trying to deceive him, his clearest perception of himself is as a thinking thing.

Descartes affirms this thinking self by the fact that he has sense and imagination, he wonders if there is anything, which corresponds to all this activity, and that now that he is certain of his own existence, if there is anything else of which he can be certain. This is how Descartes leaves at the end of the second meditation. He then comes back to this problem at the beginning of the third meditation and when he reconsiders the idea of the evil demon, in his mind he looks around and finds an idea of God, a supreme being and he wonders how the idea got there. In considering the idea of God as eternal, infinite and omnipotent Descartes discovers: " All these attributes are such that, the more carefully I concentrate on them, the less possible it seems that they could have originated from me alone. So from what has been said it must be concluded that God necessarily exists" (Cottingham 1984, p31).

Descartes proceeds in his demonstration of the existence of God by analysing the nature of thought, for Descartes there are three kinds of ideas: ideas, which he invents, ideas, which appear to be, and ideas, which are innate. For Descartes the most important ideas are innate which he finds in his mind, he knows that he is not the cause of his own idea of God because he thinks that any idea of an infinite all-knowing God transcends his own mental ability. God, therefore, causes the idea of God in his mind as he says: "This idea of a supremely perfect and infinite being is, I say, true in the highest degree; for although perhaps one may imagine that such a being does not exist, it cannot be supposed that the idea of such a being represents something unreal" (Cottingham 1984, p31). He concludes that God of whom he has an idea must possess all the perfection of which he cannot. Here he is trying to establish a definite proof of the existence of God and he discovers within his conscious mind this second certain proposition, namely God, exists.

Finally, Descartes considers whether material things exist. For Descartes, God guarantees that all the stuff in his mind must come from the stuff outside his mind and because God is not deceitful, God is the guarantee that there is something corresponding to all that stuff, as Descartes affirms:

"Now, however, I have perceived that God exists, and at the same time I have understood that everything else depends on him, and he is no deceiver; and I have drawn the conclusion that everything which I clearly and distinctly perceive is of necessity true. (Cottingham 1984, p48).

It becomes clear that the foundation of knowledge for Descartes is not just the certainty "Cogito ergo sum" I think therefore I am. There is a second certainty, namely, that God exists. Together these two propositions, constitute for Descartes the foundation of all human knowledge, he goes on to say in the sixth meditation that now that he is certain that he himself exists, and certain that God exists, then it follows that there must be an external world, because within his mind he finds an idea of God and God wouldn't allow him to be deceived. Therefore everything he knows through the senses and through his reason really exists. Then he goes back through all the various beliefs, which he had previously doubted, and accepts that they are in fact trustworthy. This concludes the sixth a last meditation of Descartes method of establishing the certainty of human knowledge.

References and bibliography

Berlin, Isaiah, (ed), The Age of Enlightenment, (London: New English Library, 1956).

Copleston, Frederick, A History of Philosophy, vols 4,5, (London: Burns and Oates, 1965).

Cottingham, John, (ed), The Philosophical Writings of Descartes, (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1984).

Craig, Edward, Routledge encyclopedia, (London: Routledge, 1998).

Hampshire, Stuart, (ed), The Age of Reason, (London: New English Library, 1956).

Ree, Jonathan, (ed), Descartes, (London: Penguin, 1974).

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Cerebral Palsy

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The words Cerebral Palsy are used to describe a medical condition that affects the control of the muscles. Cerebral means anything in the head and palsy refers to anything wrong with control of the muscles or joints in the body. If someone has cerebral palsy it means that because of an injury to their brain they are not able to use some of the muscles in their body in the normal way. Children who have cerebral palsy, or otherwise referred to as CP, may not be able to walk, talk, eat or play in the same ways as most other kids. It is important to know that CP is not a disease or illness. It is not contagious and it does not get worse, but it is not something you "grow out of". Children who have CP will have it all their lives.

Children with CP have many problems, not all of them related to the brain injury. Most of these complications are nevertheless neurological. They include epilepsy, mental retardation, learning disabilities, and attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder.

Many people in today's world continue to be blind sighted as to what cerebral palsy really is even though many are continuously faced with it everyday. Cerebral palsy is a term used to describe a group of disorders effecting body movement and muscle coordination. The definition of CP is "a non-progressive but not unchanging disorder of movement and/or posture, due to an insult or anomaly of the developing brain." Development of the brain starts in early pregnancy and continues until about age three. Damage to the brain during this time may result in CP. This damage interferes with messages from the brain tot he body, and from the body to the brain.

We do not know the cause of most cases of cerebral palsy. That is we are unable to determine what caused cerebral palsy in most children who have congenital CP. We do know that the child who is as highest risk for developing CP is the premature, very small baby who doesn not cry in the first five minutes after delivery, whoi needs to be on a ventilator for over four weeks, and who ha bleeding in his brain. Babies who have congenital malformations in systems such as the heart, kidneys, or spine are also more likely to develop CP, probably because they also have malformations in the brain. Seizures in a newborn also increase the risk of CP. There is no combination of factors, which always results in abnormally functioning individuals. That is, even the small premature infant has a better than ninety percent chance of not having CP. There are surprising numbers of babies who have very stormy courses in the newborn period and go on to do very well. In contrast, some infants who have rather benign beginnings are eventually found to have severe mental retardation or learning disabilities.

Cerebral Palsy may be classified by the type of movement problem or by the body parts involved. Spasticity refers to the inability of a muscle to relax, while athetosis refers to an inability to control the movement of a muscle. Infants who at first are hypotonic wherein they are very floppy may later develop spasticity. Hemiplegia is cerebral palsy that involves one arm and one leg on the same side of the body, where as with diplegia the primary involvement is both legs. Quadriplegia refers to a pattern involving all four extremities as well as trunk and neck muscles. Another frequently used classification is ataxia, which refers to balance and coordination problems. The motor disability of a child with CP varies greatly from one child to another; thus generalizations about children with cerebral palsy can only have meaning within the context of the subgroups described. With so many different cause of CP, it is no surprise that it takes many forms. Every person with CP is a unique individual, but is likely to be classified as having a particular type of cerebral palsy. Classification can be according to the type of movement disorder and/or by the number of limbs affected. Some other vocabulary that exists within the disease CP is Athetosis, the slow writhing movements particularly in the hands and face, Ataxia, unsteady walking and balance problems, Chorea, jerky movements of the head, arms, or legs, and Dystonia which is the twisting movements and posture of the trunk and/or limbs. Mixed types of cerebral palsy occur when areas of the brain affecting both muscle tone and voluntary movement are affected, a diagnosis of "Mixed - Type CP" may be given. Usually the spasticity is more obvious at first, with involuntary movement increasing as the child develops. The classifications of movement disorder and number of limbs involved are usually combined. These technical words can be useful in describing the type of extent of CP, but hey are only labels. A label does not describe an individual.

The affects of CP vary from individual to individual. Some cases very from very mild to extremely severe. Some side affects of cerebral palsy consist of muscle tightness or spasm, involuntary movement, difficulty with gross motor skills such as walking or running, with fine motor skills such as writing and speaking, abnormal perception and sensation, seizures, learning disabilities, hearing impairment, and vision problems.

The first questions usually asked by parents after they are told their child has cerebral palsy are "What will my child be like?" and "Will he walk?" Predicting what a young child with CP will be like or what he will or will not do is very difficult. Any predictions for an infant under six months of age are little better than guesses, and even for children younger than one year it is often very difficult to predict the pattern of involvement. By the time the child is two years old, however, the physician can determine whether or not the child has hemiplegia, diplegia or quadriplegia. Based on this involvement patter, some predictions can be made. It is worth saying again that children with cerebral palsy do not stop doing activities once they have begun to do them. Such a loss of skills, called regression, is not characteristic of CP. If regression occurs, it is necessary to look for a different cause of the child's problems. In order for a child to be able to walk, some major events in motor control have to occur. A child must be able to hold up his head before he can sit up on his own, and he must be able to sit independently before he can walk on his own. It is generally assumed that if a child is not sitting up by himself by age four or walking by age eight, how will never be an independent walker. But a child who starts to walk at age three will certainly continue to walk and will be walking when he is thirteen years old unless he has a disorder other than CP. It is even more difficult to make early predictions of speaking ability or mental ability than it is to predict motor function. Here, too, evaluation is much more reliable after age two, although a motor disability can make the evaluation of intellectual function quite difficult. Sometimes "motor-free" tests that can assess intellectual ability without the person being tested, needing to use his hands are administered by psychologists who have expertise in their use. Overall, the intellectual ability of the person, far more than their physical disability, will determine the person's prognosis. In other words, mental retardation is far more likely than cerebral palsy to impair a child's ability to function.

Cerebral Palsy is a disease that has affected thousand upon thousand of people. It has been around for many years and will continue to be around probably forever. Just because a person is diagnosed with this makes then absolutely no different than any one of US!!!!!!!!!!!

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Honor in Shakespeare

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Honor is one of the most frequently occurring words in the play. Focus on three characters- most likely Hotspur, Falstaff, and Prince Hal- and discuss what honor means to each. Pay particular attention to: Hotspur's reactions in Act I, Scene iii, and throughout Act IV; to Falstaff's speeches on honor in Act V; and to Prince Hal's discussion of the drawers in Act II, Scene iv and his promises to King Henry in Act III, Scene ii. Then you could focus on the battle of Shrewsbury, where the honor of all three characters is tested. Explain how this is done, and what you learn about the characters as a result. Talk about how the pursuit or avoidance of honor guides the characters' action. In your summing up, discuss the relationship between kingship and honor, and between politics and honor. How does Shakespeare's exploration of the many definitions of honor affect your interpretation of the plot?

Many tragic heroes had honor which was either their downfall or their positive trait. In Shakespeare's Henry IV Part 1, Hotspur, a hot tempered traitor, makes honor his first priority for him and his family . Although the king praised him, he led a rebellion against him. Shakespeare creates Hotspur as a characters whose principle concern is for himself and honor which ironically causes them to make unprincipled decisions which eventually causes their downfall. Hotspur lives his life by the code of honor. Henry IV, the king at that time, honors and respects Hotspur more than his own son. When Hotspur does not give the prisoners that he had captured to the king, it is treason because he defies against the king. Hotspur says that he did not want to hand over the prisoners because his army had just fought a hard battle and were very proud of what they had done. When the servant came looking very clean and trimly dressed, they felt that if they gives the prisoners to him then Hotspur and his army would be giving away everything they had worked and fought for. Hotspur feels that the king attacks his honor when he orders those prisoner be sent to him. The king becomes angry because Hotspur had time to think about his decision and Hotspur still had not given the soldiers to him. The king says, " Send us your prisoners, or you will hear of it" (Henry IV Part 1, I, iii, 126). Brutus also believes that honor is what makes a man. He says, " For let the gods so speed me as I love the name of honor more than I fear death" (Julius Caesar, I, ii, 95-96). He thinks that killing Caesar is his duty because it will be for the good of all Romans. When the other conspirators come over to Brutus's house, Cassius tells everyone that they should make an oath to follow through with the plan to kill Caesar. Brutus disagrees and says that only people with evil intentions take oaths and that they are doing what is the right and just. When Brutus makes his speech after the killing of Caesar he says, " Believe me for mine honor, and have respect to mine honor that you may believe " (Julius Caesar, III, ii, 15-18). But killing your friend and colleague is not honorable, so consequently Brutus is not as honorable as he believes himself to be. Honor in both of these characters is what makes them act and think they way they do. Hotspur believes that he has been betrayed and wants to kill the king. Brutus wants to kill the king also because he feels that it will be for the good of all Romans. They do not think decisions through and eventually honor overrules other factors when they make decisions. When time comes for Hotspur and Brutus to make decisions, they turn out to be bad decisions which aren't thought through. Furthermore, Hotspur is a very poor decision maker. He decides to defy the king's orders, and by doing so commits treason in which some people can be executed. Hotspur decides that his family deserves more than they have already received for taking Richard out of the throne, but he does not take into account that Henry is the king and has a lot of power. Although the king respects and honors Hotspur more than his own son, he defies the king's authority and decides to take the side of his own family. When all of the conspirators gather together, Hotspur just ridicules some of the other conspirators at a time when cooperation is a necessity. He is very hot tempered and bases his decisions on his anger. What makes Hotspur a bad leader is that he is easily manipulated by Worcester, his uncle. Worcester makes all of the plans for the conspiracy and manipulates Hotspur into taking control of the operation. Equally, Brutus is also a poor decision maker. First of all, he decides to assassinate the king and in making that faulty decision, he makes other flawed decisions. He decides that Cicero, a wise and respected man, should not be in the conspiracy. The only reason Brutus did not want him in the conspiracy is that he did not want competition for the position as the leader of the conspiracy. When the other conspirators decide to kill Antony along with Caesar, Brutus disagrees because he believes that Antony will not cause problems for the future. The other conspirators try to give reasons for killing Antony, Brutus does not listen, interrupts Cassius in mid sentence, and just decides that they will not kill Antony. Cassius also manipulates Brutus just as Hotspur was by Worcester. Cassius flatters Brutus and provokes Brutus by telling him that it is his duty for his family is to kill the king. He says, " There was a Brutus once that would have brooked th' eternal devil to keep his state in Rome as easily as a king" (Julius Caesar, I, ii, 167-170). Both Hotspur and Brutus are manipulated when a part of their character is exposed by a conspirator. Hotspur and Brutus both take charge of their conspiracies to kill their leaders and when they do, they are not proficient leaders. They do not listen to others and do not cooperate with others. Hotspur and Brutus think of themselves and are very selfish. In addition, Hotspur and Brutus are both arrogant and egotistical. First, Hotspur believes that the king will ransom Mortimer from captivity in Wales for the prisoners. When the king gives an order, it has to be followed and Hotspur believes he can bargain with the king. Then Hotspur believes that if he can get Richard II off the throne then, he could get any king off the throne. Then when all the conspirators meet in Wales to make final the terms of their plot against king Henry and to determine how they will divide up the conquered kingdom, Hotspur ridicules Glendower to his face because he believes the he is better than Glendower. Also, Hotspur thinks he deserves more land than anyone else. His desire to be honorable propels him to be arrogant and conceited. Equally, Brutus is also stuck up in many ways. First, Cassius fawns towards Brutus to manipulate him for his own purposes. Cassius explains to Brutus that Caesar is no better than any other Roman, the Romans do not want an emperor, and that he has a duty to his family to bring down an emperor. Brutus believes all of this because he himself is jealous of Caesar and believes that he is better than Caesar. Also, when a person does not listen to other opinions in a situation, that shows this person believes he is always right and does not need input of others. Brutus displays this arrogance in all of the important decisions that affected the conspiracy. This arrogance led Brutus and Hotspur to be subordinate leaders and bad decision makers. Their excessive belief in honor played a role in their arrogance which crippled their leadership abilities. Brutus and Hotspur are characters who have exorbitant views of honor which actually causes them to act in opposition to their principles and rebel against their leaders. Their egos and their struggles for power makes them susceptible to manipulation and corruption. Their misinterpreted idea of honor affects their attitude and leadership abilities. Brutus and Hotspur build their lives around honor and expect everyone else to follow those same principles. They seem to value honor, but eventually do not commit honorable acts. When people are easily manipulated and corrupt, they are not reliable leaders. Leaders can not take into account just honor in making decisions. This will lead them to view ideas in only one way. Leaders should take into account other factors when they make decisions. For example, Adolf Hitler, the leader of the Nazis looked at problems in one way. He believed Jews were the cause of Germany's economic problems and did not take into account that Germany was to blame for the first world war and had to pay reparations for it. Hitler's arrogance and his own definition of honor caused him to make decisions looking at them one way just as Hotspur and Brutus did. Hitler was also obsessed with the Aryan race. He believed the Aryan race, Germans, were superior to all other races and did not even listen to what other had to say. The narrow way he looked at his views made him an unreliable leader and bad decision maker. As we choose the leaders for our country, we should try to evaluate wha

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France

If you order your custom term paper from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on france. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality france paper right on time.

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Where should I go on vacation this summer? Where is somewhere that has educational features and is fun for the family at the same time? Well, I'll give you an answer to all of your questions. GO TO FRANCE! French history goes back to prehistoric times, and every century has left a record, giving France one of the worlds finest national heritages. France has been the number one tourist destination for several years now. The Centre national dart et de culture Georges-Pompidou, better known as Beaubourg, beats all records with more than eight million visitors a year. The Eiffel Tower has more than six million. The Arc de Triomphe is the most visited historic monument. The cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris, the Muse du Louvre (five million visitors a year) and the Muse dOrsay, are some of the famous places which have contributed to Frances renown. But every part of France has remarkable sites and historical monuments. The pont du Gard, built by the Romans, the Citde Carcassonne (see above) and Mont-Saint-Michel begun in the 5th and 8th centuries, the cathedrals at Reims and Chartres, built in the 1th and 1th centuries, illustrate the engineering skill of the builders which still makes visitors gasp in admiration. These are only a very few examples among thousands of churches, chapels, cloisters, stately homes, museums and galleries which can be visited all year round. For 0 years, France has enriched the nations heritage with dramatic new buildings. The Citdes sciences et de lindustrie, the Grande Arche and especially the Pyramid at the Louvre have become extremely popular with visitors to Paris. A different kind of museum you can visit is the Futuroscope at Poitiers which is future oriented and focuses on new and coming technologies

Today, France produces more films than any other country in Europe. Going to the movies is increasingly popular with young people who love American films. The Palais du Festival in Cannes on the Croisette. Cannes is the worlds most famous movie festival.Okay,Okay if that's not enough to get you to go to France than here is a few more reasons. Even though France is roughly the size of Texas, it offers all different kinds of scenery. You can cross the whole country from east to west or north to south in less than a day traveling by car or train. France has 4,400 miles of highway, more than any country except the U.S., Australia and Germany. The mountain ranges are all ages. The oldest ones, like the Massif Central with volcanic relief, the Vosges, Ardennes and Armorican Massif, are recognizable by their rounded summits. The most recent , the Pyrenes, Jura, Alps and Corsica, dominate the landscape. The French countryside is made up of huge basins, plains and plateaus which are traversed by major rivers. Most are fertile regions which are only moderately hilly. The coastline is ,844 miles long. The landscape varies from cliffs in the north, to rocky outcroppings and then dunes in the west on the Atlantic side, and a low and rocky shoreline on the Mediterranean. France also includes overseas territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans, as well as in South America. Most French cities have downtown areas dating back several centuries. The oldest parts usually include squares, town halls, gardens, and churches or cathedrals. In the 0th century, suburbs mushroomed on the outskirts of the cities.

1. JOB OPPORTUNITIES

Knowledge of a second language is essential over 60occupations. Canada, officially bilingual, is our most important trading partners and requires labeling in English and French on all imported products. More than 1,00 French companies have subsidiaries in the U.S., and France is the largest recipient of U.S. foreign investments. France is a world leader in the development of a modern telecommunications, a market with explosive growth potential. The European Union, the second largest trading bloc in the world, recognizes French as an official languages. Think about the many opportunities with the airlines, import-export companies, and other international businesses. French is also a very useful language if you are thinking of working at the United Nations (where French is the second most widely used language) or for the United States Government in the foreign service. Here in the United States, when you know French, you could become a French teacher, an interpreter or a translator.

. OTHER CULTURES

French is the first or second language in more 40 countries and is spoken by 15 million people around the world, on every continent. Because French is a foreign language of choice for so many people in the world, knowing French will also increase your chances of communicating in a non-English-speaking country. You can use French to develop international friendships, as well as to communicate via internet.

. SPORTS

In French is always an official language to announce events, winners, and medals at the Olympic Games, including the 16 Summer Olympics in Atlanta. If you live near the Quebec border, you can also follow hockey and baseball games in French. Automobiles races (Le Mans and Monte Carlo), horse racing (Long champ), tennis tournaments (French Open), and the Tour de France (long distance bicycle race) engage fans all around the globe. When you know French, the international world of sports is open to you.

4. IMPROVE YOUR ENGLISH...

From 40 to 50% of English vocabulary comes from French. The study of French will also enhance your grammar skills, and your increased proficiency in English will greatly improve your scores on the verbal section, of the SAT and the ACT. As you develop greater skills in French, you also sharpen your skills in English.

5. CRITICAL AND CREATIVE

It will also increase your problem-solving skills and improve your memory, self-discipline and self-esteem. Because progress is very easy to measure, you can quickly take pride in your new abilities. Knowing French can help you attain a number of important life skills.

6. TRAVEL

France is the most visited destination in the world with 67 million tourists in 17. Paris was recently named by Fortune Magazine as one of the top ten global cities. When you speak French, you can be an educated tourist, ask for directions, get your own hotel room or tell a French friend about the United States.

7. OPENING THE DOORS TO ART, MUSIC, FASHION, CINEMA...

As you quickly realize when you look at the foreign film section of your local video store, France is one of the most prolific producers of international films. The Cannes International Film Festival annually attracts the attention of the world when the best films, directors and actors are named. When you understand French, you dont have to rely on subtitles to enjoy a French film.

8. LITERATURE

People around the world are familiar with Les Misrables, The Three Musketeers, 0,000 Leagues Under the Sea, The Little Prince, and The Stranger. In fact, France has won more Nobel Prizes for literature than any other country. The French are also admired for their great philosophers, such as Descartes and Pascal, Rousseau, Voltaire, Camus, and Sartre. When you read French, you can enjoy these works and authors in the original.

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France, the worlds fourth leading economic power

France is now the fourth richest country in the world after the U.S., Japan and Germany. It has .5 million companies employing more than six million people in industry and more than 14.4 million in commercial and service activities. Some industries are performing particularly well the agro-food and aircraft sectors both rank third in the world. Automobiles, electronics, chemicals and tourism have registered strong growth. The so-called tertiary sector (that is, transportation, trade, services, etc.) employs 68% of the working population. It is an important sector accounting for 67.5% of the countrys wealth. For the past few years, France has been one of the top three countries most attractive to foreign investors. They make money available to French industries so that they can grow more. Like every other nation, France sells products to other countries in the world. It also buys from them too. If it sells more products than it buys, it has what is called a trade surplus. Since 18, Frances results have been positive, confirming that French businesses are competitive all over the world. This surplus reached 1 billion francs in 16.

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Rise of the Nazi Party

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The Nazi Party, led by Hitler, was by 15 the most adulated party in Europe. This was due to their ability to use both the recurring tragedies that beset Germany after World War One and the incapability of the Weimar Government to counter effect them, to their advantage. Their success can mainly be attributed to the Great Depression, which made many dissatisfied with the present, and anxious for the future, ready to turn to the strong leadership the Nazis offered in this time of chaos. They rose to prominence and eventually to power in a time when Germany was constantly faced with one crisis after another, the public desperate for a restoration of their nation.

Using scapegoats as the target for all Germany's political, economic and social problems, the Nazis promised to rid Germany of these threats and establish a great nation. They blamed the politicians and the Jews for the hated Treaty of Versailles, the French invasion of the Ruhr, the economic misery of the hyperinflation in1, and the great depression that hit in1. Disillusioned with these events, and the political turmoil in the government, the German people were looking for new solutions. Nazism thrived on this urgency, and through propaganda and Hitler's immense charisma, they appealed to the public as a saviour figure.

The Nazi Party's policies were constructed to attract a wide social base in German society. They were based mainly on popular anxiety, prejudices and ethnocentrism. The humiliation and resentment of the Treaty of Versailles was felt by many, so Hitler used this as a focus for the problems that beset Germany after the war. This enabled the Nazis to bring out people's anger and fear, and through this, their support.

Acting upon the fear of communism and the prejudice of Jews, the Nazis took a strong stance against both. They put out communist uprisings through violence, and by doing this gained a following, especially from the middle-class who would be most effected by the rule of communism. Local authorities also overlooked the violent activities of the Nazis, as they too feared the communist threat. Hitler hammered the message that the "Jewish menace"(1) was destroying Germany's potential as a great nation, as they corrupted the countries political and economic worlds. People willingly accepted somebody to blame for the problems facing themselves and their country.

Essay help on Rise of the Nazi Party

The German public also found themselves losing faith in the Weimar Republic and the democratic brand of government on account of the French occupation of their territory and the major economic crisis that followed. The French invasion of the Ruhr brought shame and misery to huge amounts of the German people. When the hyper-inflation hit, people were faced with starvation, eviction and illness. The invasion which caused the hyperinflation period was a direct result of the signing of the Versailles treaty, as it was because Germany could not make the repayments that the French came in and took over the richest part of their country. The Nazis grasped this opportunity to appeal to the public as a strong party who would pull Germans out of the misery they were facing, unlike the Weimar government who was allowing for this anguish. They did this through propaganda, one of the forms being posters stating, "First bread, then reparations"()

Democracy was seen more and more as a weak form of government, unable to cope with the crises that were continually facing Germany. The Nazis took advantage of this growing opinion, asserting themselves as a strong authoritarian leadership who would gain the control needed to resolve the crisis. Considering democracy had only been introduced in Germany in 118, and the public was used to obedience to a dictator, the cards played on the Nazis table.

Although the Nazi Party was building itself up constantly, it wasn't until 1 when the Great Depression hit that they gained a substantial following.The economic crisis of the Great Depression had horrendous outcomes, leaving the German public faced with an extremely high rate of unemployment. The way of life reached an all time low, and people were looking for new solutions, new leaders, new parties and perhaps even a new regime. "As the dole queues lengthened and Germany slid deeper into depression, more and more voters turned to political parties which rejected the Weimar Republic and offered their own brands of dictatorship."() The Nazi Party, under Hitler used this to their full benefit, taking the opportunity to blame the Weimar politicians who caused this. They drew the German people's attention to the political turmoil in the government, pointing out their ineffectual way of dealing with the economic crisis. The Nazi Party, on the other hand, presented themselves as "strong and dynamic leaders"(4) who would pull Germany out of this mess. The Nazi Party's support grew from .8% in 18 to 7.% in 1, signifying the way in which they could use people's anxiety, caused by crises, to gain support.

The Great Depression was a stroke of luck for the Nazi Party. Through this people turned to them, and they effectively made use of this by voicing their promises to increase voter support. The Nazi Party was able to promote policies that would appeal to all levels of German society. They promised agricultural reform for the farmers, respect for rural people, employment for the workers and economic stability (which appealed to the upper class, as they feared the increasing influence of the working class). The Nazi campaign also focused much on what was wrong with other parties and how they had brought about the Great Depression. This angered people who were already unsettled, and influenced them to turn to a new leader.

Hitler, as the leader of the Nazi party, drew the public support with his charismatic personality, and his ability to "move the masses."(5) He voiced the Nazi Parties ideals with such emotion, that it created nationalistic fervour by those who went and saw him speak. He spoke of more than mere economic recovery, but a national revival. He saw Germans as "the greatest people on earth"(6), and sympathised with them, reassuring them that "It is not your fault that you were defeated in the war and have suffered so much since. It is because you were betrayed in 118 and have been exploited ever since". (7) Hitler promised to remove the constraints of the hated Treaty of Versailles, to reunite Germany, to give Germany a respectable international front and restore her honour. In times of great crisis and conflict, the Nazi party was aware that people turned to this great strength and leadership, and took full advantage of it. For they as leaders provided "the sight of discipline in a time of chaos, the impression of energy in an atmosphere of universal hopelessness."(8)

Although through the Great Depression the Nazi party's votes increased dramatically, they still didn't hold an absolute majority in parliament. What enabled them to rise to power was the political turmoil in the democratic system of government, and the way in which their opponents drastically underestimated Hitler. During 1, the main stream democratic parties were falling apart rather than working together to unite against Nazism, for they "were much too divided and short sighted to combine against a common danger which…(threatened to)…overwhelm them."() They were unable to provide the strong leadership Germany needed in times of nation crisis; this caused the German people to turn to the Nazi Party. In 1 Von Paper, the former government of 57 days, persuaded President Hidenburg to appoint Hitler Chancellor, reassuring him that Hitler would be a, "Chancellor in chains". (10) Hitler, supported by the Nazi party, now had a position of power that could lead them to "take control of first the parliament and then the nation."(11)

The crisis of the Reichstag fire assisted them in doing so. Through this, the Nazi party was able to appeal to the public's fear of communism, and enabled them to have The Protection of People and State signed. This gave Hitler more control in parliament, and the power to wipe out any political opposition. By 1 the Nazi party were in power of the parliament, along with the nationalists, in form of a coalition government. The Nazis took full advantage of the division in the government, and on these grounds were able to pass through parliament The Enabling Law. Democracy was destroyed and Hitler followed by the Nazi Party, now had absolute power a dictatorship.

Hitler and the Nazi party gained power by the effective way they used the continual crises Germany faced in the period following World War One, and the conflict in the Government. In a Nazi Party member's own words, "All that serves to bring about catastrophe…is good, very good for us and our German revolution."(1) It was essentially the hit of the Great Depression that caused people to turn to the Nazis. However, power could not have been achieved without their display of strong leadership in a time of anarchy or their immense ability to act on these tragedies.

(1) Book 1 Unit 1 VCE Twentieth Century History, p.4.5

() Ibid, p..11

() Ibid, p.5.4

(4) Ibid, p.5.5

(5) Ibid, p.4.11

(6) Ibid, p.5.8

(7) Ibid, p.5.8

(8) Ibid, p.5.

() Ibid, p.5.16

(10) Ibid, p.5.1

(11) Ibid, p.5.14

(1) Ibid, p.5.6

K.J.Mason. A History of Germany 118-145 Republic to Reich, McGraw-Hill book company Sydney 16

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