Remuneration

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Abstract

The real wage of the average worker in the United States has fallen 1 percent in the last 0 years, while the average chief executive officer (CEO) has received a pay raise of over 00 percent (Crystal, 11). This glaring contrast has sparked an explosion in academic research on executive compensation. The argument that Crystal (11) proposed, ¡°just about all of the rational factors you can think of, taken together, don¡¯t play a big role in determining executive pay¡±, is dominant in this medium. Despite this fact, research on executive paychecks has continued to grow as the literature is truly interdisciplinary across the fields of economics, finance and accounting, industrial relations, organizational behavior and strategy (Murphy 1).

Labour economists have drawn upon many conclusions on executive remuneration from a large theoretical and empirical interdisciplinary literature. They argued that executive remuneration offers opportunities to analyze many concepts of the economics of managerial labor market. Hence, in this essay I am going to explore these opportunities by looking at the functioning market in the captioned perspective.

The managerial labor market, which contains a range of firms that are with managerial jog openings and a range of potential managers who have different human capital characteristics, has two sides. On the one hand, the demand side, which is made up of employees who produce goods and services, and employers who purchase executive effort, concerns paid managerial labor as a function of the latter¡¯s pay and productivity. On the other hand, the supply side composes executives who are assumed to switch firms according to the characteristics of the firm and the salary. By understanding the two sides and the disciplining effect of the managerial labor markets, firms can identify the market forces that determine the optimal executive remuneration contracts so as to maximize firm value (Fama 180, Fama & Jensen 18). The use of such knowledge align with the understanding of managerial behavior with owners¡¯ interests can help firms to choose corporate policies that best signal their own value to the labor market such as CEO remuneration. Since one of the most important objectives of firms is to maximize their value, executives are disciplined into undertaking strategies preferred by the stockholders that maximize the firm¡¯s stock price (Fama 180). Hence, suggesting the major functioning of managerial labor market are to determine the rational level and structure of remuneration package and to reflect the managerial labor market¡¯s control of executives¡¯ behavior to maximize firm value.

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Despite the fact that executive remuneration schemes across firms and industries are substantially heterogeneous and complex, it can boiled down to four basic elements a base salary, bonus, stock options and long term incentive plans. I will examine these in turns. First, base salary for executives is a key component of the pay package. It represents the ¡° fixed component¡± in executive contracts. Second, bonus is paid annually based on accounting profit, budget, prior-year performance or incentive zone. Third, stock options are agreements that the executive may purchase from the firm at any time within a stated period or a given number of shares of its stock at a price specified on the date of granting (Easton & Rosen 18). This, with regards to political, economic, mechanical and behavioral factors, has made it the most pronounced method in executive remuneration in the last two decade (Murphy 1). This is because it relates the executive¡¯s income most directly to the concern of shareholders, i.e. the value of the firm. Finally, the long- term incentive plan, which is based on rolling ¨C average -or-5-year cumulative performance.

As I have stated before, the major function of the managerial labor market is to set a rational level and structure of the executive remuneration package so to maximize the firm¡¯s value, i.e. the executive remuneration reflects the managerial labor market¡¯s control of executives¡¯ behavior to maximize firm value. Hence, making the relationship between executive remuneration and company¡¯s performance the fundamental concern.

In order to understand this concern, we have to examine the agency theory as it is the principal theory guiding research on the pay-performance relationship (Berstein 17; Crystal, 15; Lowenstein 16; Gomez-Mejia 14; Gomez-Mejia and Wiseman 17; Fama & Jensen 18; Jensen & Meckling 176).

Agency theory states that many social relationships can be best understood as interactions between two parties principal and an agent. The agent performs certain actions on behalf of the principal, who must delegate some authority to the agent (Jesen and Mecking, 176). By examining the theory, firms can be in a better position when dealing with contract problems that are governed by an exchange between individuals who have divergent interests.

Typical organization in most western countries, which has a corporate structure with thousands or millions of owners, each having a small claim on the firm, can be used to make a clear illustration of the above. Shareholders of the organization are widely dispersed, delegating responsibility to running the business to hired executives. Given their limited control over corporate affairs and executive¡¯s limited stake in the firm¡¯s equity and risk, executive is expected to engage in behavior that promotes their personal wealth, perquisite consumption, job security and prestige but is detrimental to stockholders¡¯ interest in maximizing the value of the firm (Jesen & Mecking 176). The literature on agency theory has suggested that the optimal solution to goal incongruent is to have remuneration contracts that link executive remuneration to the performance of the firm. Hence, through the executive¡¯s holdings of stock, restricted stock, and stock options, an executive remuneration is explicitly tied to the principle¡¯s objective, i.e. the executive wealth is implicitly tied to the stock-price performance through accounting-based bonus and option (Murphy, 1). This in turns suggests that the performance-based remuneration will induce self-interested, utility-maximizing, risk-and-effort-averse agents to act on the behalf of principals who want to increase the value and performance of their firms (Eisenhardt 18; Jesen & Mecking 176). This view, however, has failed to find supportive evidence of such positive relationship (Jesen & Murphy 10; Kerr & Bettis 187; Mceachern 175; Rich & Larson 184). These researchers have claimed that the relationship between executive remuneration and firm performance is either nonexistent or is of a very weak nature, that is, remuneration is significantly unrelated to the firm¡¯s performance (Crystal 11) or if related, then only related to the short-term performance (Rapport 178). In contrast, some studies claim that the executive remuneration is more closely related to the firm¡¯s size than to the firm¡¯s profits (McGuire 16). Therefore this inconclusive effect of executive remuneration on the functioning of managerial labor market has brought a great puzzle to the researchers.

Therefore, to understand the functioning of managerial labour market, alternate mechanisms and criteria outside the agency framework are examined. These mechanisms include marginal productivity theory, internal and external market theory, board control theory, information-processing theory and social comparison theory, will be examined in turns.

Marginal productivity theory views the managerial labor market as perfectly competitive, that is there are a large number of individual, perfectly informed buyers and sellers of homogeneous executives. Hence, remuneration, viewed as the price of labor, is seen as being determined by the intersection of labor demand and supply curves in the market. Firm maximizes its profits in the short run by employing executives up to the point where the executive remuneration equals executive¡¯s marginal revenue product (MRP). It equals to executive¡¯s marginal physical product (MPP) multiplied by marginal revenue (MR). According to economists, executives are assumed to be highly mobile and fully informed and would supply their labor service to the highest bidder. Executive supply and demand are quickly brought into a state of equilibrium through executives moving from one firm to another in response to opportunities to obtain higher earnings. Thus, by looking at the profit-maximizing firm¡¯s short-run demand curve for executives, which is the schedule of its marginal revenue product, executive remuneration can be determined by the value of his contribution to the firm.

Another influential theory regarding the internal and external managerial labor market of executive pay is made by Fama (180). He argued that the external labor market exerts many direct pressures on the firm to sort and compensate executives according to performance. Hence, there is a natural process of monitoring from higher to lower levels of management, i.e. each executive is concerned with the performance of executive above and below him since his marginal product is likely to be positive of their. This leads to a careful consideration of the mechanics, which the potential executives used to seek information about the responsiveness of the system in rewarding performance. Thus this market mechanism ensures the rights of shareholders and the rights of the top management are respected.

The third theory views the board as the legal representative and formal guardian of stockholders¡¯ interests, i.e. the board members have the task to oversee and ratify managements¡¯ decisions and to evaluate reward and sanction executives¡¯ performance (Bacon & Brown, 175). Research has focused on two broad factors, executive duality and the proportion of outsiders on a board in evaluating the influence the board exerts in setting executive pay. Finkelstein and Hambrick (18) found no evidence of a relationship between executive remuneration the percentage shareholdings of outside directors. Furthermore, Boyd (14) found that ¡° contrary to expectations, the ratio of insiders was negatively associated with compensation¡±. Other work has also shown that the proportion of outside directors appointed to a board by its executive has a positive effect on executive remuneration (Main, 14). This theory also suggests that there is a threat of board actions and termination in response to observed managerial inefficiency or opportunism, which is likely to impel executives to refrain from behavior that is in conflict with stockholders¡¯ interests. Thus the characteristics of the board such as its structure and its effectiveness are key determinants on the executive remuneration and the sensitivity of the relationship between remuneration and performance.

Information-processing theory is very important when contributing on the recent work on executive remuneration as it focuses on the substantive nature of the job performed by executives on the social and political context of their pay. There are several reasons for expecting the remuneration of executive is in accordance to the information processing demands they face instead of the firm¡¯s performance. First, information-processing tasks are a major part of executive¡¯s jobs and the execution of such tasks is critical to organizational functioning and performance (Eisenhardt 18; Galbraith 17; Halrblian & Finkelstein 1; Minzberg 17; Thompson 167). Second, executives¡¯ jobs vary considerably in the information-processing demands they create. The common theme of such research is around those demands that are significantly affected by three firm-level factors (1) the number and interdependence of a firm¡¯s business activities. () the technologies the firm employs and ( ) the management used to administrate the firm (Chandler 16; Dafe & Lengel 186; Galbraith 17; Gresov 18; Hill & Hoskisson 187; Jones & Hill 188). This theory, therefore, shows that executives who face particularly high information-processing demands due to the diversification approach to technology their firms adapted will be expected to be paid more, as their ability to cope with these demands allow them to make larger marginal contributions to firm performance (Henderson & Fredrickson 16).In an informational efficient executive labor market, it is unrealistic to expect changes in executive pay to be closely related to firm performance measure, i.e. it has a low sensitivity of pay-for-performance.

Finally, the use of social comparison theory provides us an understanding of socio-psychological explanation of remuneration. This theory is based on the remise that individuals have the need to evaluate their opinions and abilities. They compare with others who have similar abilities and opinions. In the case of managerial labor market, the implication is that the remuneration committee will set the pay of executives who are perceived to be slightly better by striking a balance between providing financial incentives to executives to improve firm performance and avoiding a binding ¡°participation constraint¡± (Smith & Stnabsju 15). That is to ensure that executives remain loyal to firms by offering levels of pay comparable to the external labor market alternatives.

So far, I have discussed what factors determine the executive remuneration and how they effect on the firm¡¯s performance from the economics, psychological and sociological perspectives. However, these are not sufficient enough to understand the functioning of the managerial labour market fully. Recent work, perhaps responding to the difficulties with traditional economies-based research on remuneration, has begun to move beyond established frameworks and suggests some new factors that may influence the remuneration-setting process. Managerial discretion, efficient wages model, tournament models (Lazer & Rosen 181; Rosen 186), resource dependence theory etc are some examples of paradigms that explain executive pay, which have moved the stream of research on executive remuneration forward greatly.

To sum up, research on executive compensation has a long history. Much of this work has adopted the economics perspective, which views social, political or strategic factors as the determinants of executive pay. In this essay, I have tried to explore the functioning of managerial labor market based on the existing comprehensive theoretical and empirical literature on executive remuneration. My conclusion is that although the pay for performance is consistent with agency theory, the relationship between executive remuneration and performance is more complex than the empirical research has presumed. Since the extent to which the functioning of managerial labor market is effected by the executive remuneration is still inconclusive, a broader perspective should be adopted by firms in order to have a better understanding of the functioning of managerial labor market from the executive remuneration stand.

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Rosa Parks

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Rosa Parks

Rosa Louise Parks was an extraordinary African American civil rights activist whose heroic actions sparked the beginning of the monumental civil rights movement within the United States of America.

Rosa Parks firmly stood up for what she believed and it was time for her to show the world who she was and what she believed in. Rosa was born on February 4th, 11 in Tuskegee, Alabama. Every since she was a little girl, her mother knew that God had a special purpose for her. She was raised by her mother because her father was never around. She recalled that he would stay several days and then leave again. She never saw him any more until she was an adult and married (Brinkley 1). She lived with her mother and brother in a small house. Her mother was a school teacher who sometimes traveled out of state to teach in different schools and in black churches. Rosa was also raised in part by her grandparents who lived nearby.

Growing up was hard for Rosa. It is upsetting to think that innocent children lives were in danger, because of the members of the Ku Klux Klan. This was a secret society that originated in southern states. Its purpose was to reassert white supremacy by the means of terrorism. Klan members would parade up and down the streets in front of Rosas home. They never attacked her family, but she felt the violence of white supremacy at a very young age (Brinkley 5).

Rosa moved to Montgomery, Alabama at the age of eleven and her mom enrolled her at Montgomery Industrial school for girls. All of the teachers at this school were white, while the student body of two hundred and thirty to three hundred were entirely black. However she dropped out of school at the age of sixteen to care for both her grandmother, who died soon after, and then for her ailing mother. She was practically taking care of herself as well as her family, while the pressures of white supremacy, still were in full effect (Encarta 1).

Rosa also grew up under a strict racist law system called the Jim Crow Law. The Jim Crow law system was adopted in 1875. This law was named after a minstrel show character, who was an old, crippled, black slave who embodied a negative stereotype for African Americans. It was the official system of racial segregation that spread across the south after the Civil War. Segregation was the separation of the races in every sphere of life to achieve white supremacy. African Americans and whites were legally separated on streetcars, trains, steamboats, and every other form of public transportation as well as schools, hospitals, restaurants, hotels and even drinking fountains. These laws put black and white signs on every public facility. These signs historians say were public symbols of and constant reminders of black rejection (Brinkley ).

In the 186 Supreme Court case Plessy V. Fergusonthe court authorized separate but equal facilities for blacks and whites which were in reality were not equal. African Americans throughout the south started organizing pro integration protest rallies which promoted bringing together whites and blacks in society, but these rallies had no effect on society (Brinkley ).

The Jim Crow trolley demanded blacks enter in the back of the trolley and they had to stay there. Some of the public buses between Tuskegee and Montgomery refused to let colored people inside. African Americans had to sit on top of the luggage no matter what the weather was like. Montgomery, which boasted the first electric trolley system in the country, was faced with a boycott in August of 100. African Americans were urged to walk and not ride in show of solidarity against the cities unfairness to its paying passengers. This boycott lasted five weeks and it cost the trolley operator twenty five percent of its business. Eventually the company ended streetcar segregation in the city in the 10s, but it was short lived in part because of the Klans activities. This largely forgotten boycott in civil rights history was an important event that preceded the 155 Montgomery boycott that would bring Rosa parks international recognition. Rosa said, I had heard stories about the 100 boycott, and I thought about it sometimes when the segregated trolley passed by. It saddened me to think how African Americans took one step forward and then two steps back (Brinkley).

In 1 at the age of nineteen Rosa married Raymond Parks who was a twenty nine year old barber. She received her high school diploma the following year and supported the family by sewing and other jobs. Rosa remembered that when it came to voting African Americans had major disadvantages. In 17 a group of poor voters brought a constitutional challenge against the poll tax which was a fee charged across the south for exercising the right to vote. The group lost the challenge and the Supreme Court upheld the poll tax as constitutional. If a person was poor with no extra money, which most blacks in Alabama were, they could not vote. Another obstacle was literacy tests which were tests on reading and writing and if a person failed it they could not vote. She tried to register to vote although she did not succeed until her third time. She was forced to take a literacy test, which she passed and she also had to pay the poll tax of $ 16.50.

In 145 Rosa became a secretary of the Montgomery branch of the NAACP. This was the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. It was an organization founded to improve the conditions for African Americans in the United States (Encarta ).

The southern bus systems all seemed to follow the same set of bus rules. In Montgomery for example all the city buses had thirty-six seats. The first ten seats were always reserved for whites and the ten seats farthest to the back were unofficially designed for the blacks to use. The sixteen seats in the middle individual bus drivers imposed there own segregation rules on and enforced them with the threat of pistols they carried. Many drivers enhanced the degrading of blacks by making them pay their fares in the front of the bus, and then they had to get off and go all the way around to the back of the bus to board. It was a form of everyday humiliation in Montgomery. Rosa said, Some bus drivers were meaner than others. Not all of them were hateful, but segregation is vicious and to my mind there was no way you could make segregation decent, or nice, or acceptable(Brinkley 57).

One bus driver that stood out in Rosas mind was a man named James Blake. He was a major bigot who treated everyone that was black badly especially black women. He made blacks pay in the front and then as they walked outside to the back of the bus, he would leave them with a face full of exhaust as he raced off. One afternoon Rosa boarded through the front door of Blakes bus, because the back was filled with people. Blake demanded that she exit the bus and get back on through the back door. She told him that she did not see the need to get off and back on again. He was infuriated with her and told her to get off his bus. Parks engaged in an act of passive resistance, named by Leo Tolstoy and embraced by Mahatma Gandhi, which was resistance by a nonviolent method. This method she learned in Matthew 5 of the Bible where Jesus taught that if someone strikes you on one cheek, you should turn the other cheek. She not only refused to ride on Blakes Bus, but avoided them for the next twelve years. She walked wherever she went even in the rain rather than suffer further injustice. However in 155 Rosa has another incident with a Montgomery bus that left the bus company in an uproar (Brinkley58).

On December 1st 155 Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her seat to a white man. She went on the bus and she walked in the back of where white people were sitting. The bus was extremely crowded that day. On the second or third stop some white people came on the bus and there was one white man standing. When the driver noticed the man standing, he told her to get up. Rosa told him she was not moving from the seat and he threatened to have her arrested. She said that he may do that and he did. Two policemen came on the bus and placed her under arrest. The public responded to her arrest as soon as it was announced. It was put in the paper and Mr. E.D. Nixon, who was the legal redress chairman of the Montgomery branch of the NAACP, made phone calls to a number of ministers. There was a public meeting at Dexter Avenue Baptist church, where Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. was the pastor. The Montgomery Improvement Association was formed and it was led by Martin Luther King, Jr. Rosa said, When she met Martin Luther King Jr. she was very impressed with his delivery as a speaker and by his leadership. He seemed to be a genuine and very concerned person, who she thought was a real, true Christian (Brinkley 07).

Rosas trial was on December 5th and the court found her guilty. Her lawyers Fred Gray and Charles Langford filed an appeal, and she was later fined $10.00 plus $4.00 in court expenses (Brinkley 1).

The Montgomery Improvement Association called for a boycott of the city owned bus company. It urged people to walk or ride with people in cars rather than take public transportation which was primarily the bus. Many people heard about the Rosa Parks event and a large number of people participated in not riding the bus. During the boycott Rosa went to many different city meeting urging people to participate in the boycott. She told people all about her incident on the bus and encouraged people join her in boycott. Rosa was determined to put a stop to the racist system which some Americans had accepted. The boycott lasted 8 and captured the nations attention. The Supreme Court eventually struck down the Montgomery ordinance under which Rosa Parks was fined, and outlawed racial segregation on public transportation (Smithsonian 1).

However, Rosa and her husband Raymond both lost their jobs and suffered repeated harassment and threats in July of 157. The last hateful message which they received, pushed Raymond Parks into a near suicidal despair, that scared Rosa more than the death threat itself. Soon after this terrible incident Raymond and Rosa moved to Detroit, where Rosa served on the staff of US Representative John Conyers. The Southern Christian Leadership Council established an annual Rosa Parks Freedom Award in her honor. After the death of her husband, she founded the Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute for self development. This institute sponsors an annual summer program for teenagers called Capital Pathways to Capital Freedom. In this program young people tour the country in busses, under adult supervision and learn the history of their country and the Civil Rights Movement. This institute provides scholarships and guidance for young blacks (Encarta ).

Rosa Parks received numerous awards and tributes including the NAACPs highest honor, the Spinarn Medal in 170 and prestigious Martin Luther Jr. award in 180. Cleveland Avenue in the city of Montgomery was renamed Rosa Parks Boulevard in 165. President Bill Clinton in 16 awarded her the Presidential Medal of Freedom, which is the highest honor that the U.S. government can give to a civilian. In 1 she received the Congressional Gold Medal from the US Congress (Encarta ).

Rosa Parks became known as the Mother of the Civil Rights Movement and her life has impacted the world tremendously. Her actions have helped us believe in ourselves and our faith in God, showing us that we can overcome any difficult obstacle that we may face.

Please note that this sample paper on Rosa Parks is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Rosa Parks, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college paper on Rosa Parks will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Michelangelo and The Sistine Chapel

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16 February 00

Michelangelo and the Sistine Chapel

Michelangelo was one of the greatest sculptor, painter, architect and poet. His tastes were really simple; he didn't wish for luxury. He was wealthy, people took care of him, and he had good friends. He used to take daily walks no matter what the weather to stay healthy. When the weather turned bad, he used to wear a long woolen cloak that protected him from rain and cold. He ate pasta, fish, green salads, cheese and country bread. He needed little sleep, and use to spend long evening sitting by the fire talking with friends, writing poems or drawing.

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Abrams, page

Michelangelo was born in 1475, the second son of 5 in an aristocratic family, the Buonarroti Simoni. His father's name was Lodovico and his mother's name was Francesca. His family was one of the important families in Florence for hundreds of years, but in the time that he was born the wealth of the family was going down. His father was too proud to work as a merchant or farmer; he only wanted that the terms as a governor would go up. He waited a few weeks and this happened. Michelangelo's mother,

Francesca was incapable of nursing Michelangelo so he was sent to Settignano to live with the family of a stonecutter. When he was 6 years, old his mother died because she had much babies. When he was 10 Lodovico married another woman so Michelangelo was sent back to Florence. By this time he could already work as a stonecutter but he couldn't read or write. It was normal that all the kids at the age of 10could read and write, when he was 1 he learned. At this age he discovered that he had the gift of drawing and he used to draw as much as he could. His friend, Francesco Granacci, was studying to be a painter. Michelangelo told his father that he wanted to be a painter, but Lodovico only thought about money and the family's influence, Michelangelo asked him continuously so he father used to beat him a lot, but after a few months of perseverance Lodovico gave in. In the same year, Michelangelo became Domenico Ghirlandaio's apprentice. In 148 Lorenzo de' Medici, a member of the leading family in Florence, invited an experienced sculptor, Bertoldo di Giovanni, to become the keeper of the Medici's art collection. Bertoldo wanted to train promising young sculptors, so he asked Ghirlandaio. He sent Michelangelo and Francesco. Michelangelo was given a piece of marble. He made the head of a roman god. Lorenzo de' Medici liked this so much that he wanted Michelangelo live in his house with his family. Michelangelo joined the circle of the family where he was treated if he were a member of the family. In 141, with the help of Lorenzo and Bertoldo, Michelangelo carved a thin plaque called the Madonna of the stairs, in marble. A year later he finished the Battle of the Centaurs.

Abrams, page 4-1

In 14, Lorenzo de' Medici died because of a lighting struck the cathedral that made pieces of concrete to fly away and one of them hit Lorenzo. His oldest son, Piero, took power and he never liked Michelangelo, so he got him out of the house. Michelangelo didn't want to live with his dad so he went to the monastery, Santo Spirito. In this monastery he made a sculpture of Hercules that was larger than life. In 144, Piero had to flee Florence because there was a conflict between France and Napal that was Florence's neighbor. Before all of this happened, Michelangelo had a bad feeling so he escaped to the northeast to Venice. He was only 1 so he couldn't get a job. He then went south to Bologna. At the entrance soldiers stopped him and told him that he had to pay a fee entrance. He didn't have any money so they sent him to jail. He was taken to a magistrate named Gianfrancesco Aldourandi, when he discovered that Michelangelo was a sculptor and had been a member of Lorenzo de' Medici household. He invited Michelangelo to stay at his palace. Aldourandi helped Michelangelo in obtaining commission to sculpture statues for the tomb of St. Dominic. This tomb was an important for the city. In 145 he finished the statues and returned to Florenece. In 148, Michelangelo signed a contract. The contract said that he had to make the Pietà; that was the figure of Christ. This is the only sculpture Michelangelo signed. In 1501 the Board of Works considered Michelangelo for a commission for a major sculpture, and they chose him. He had to make a huge figure of David. With this sculpture, he became famous. In 1508 Julius II called Michelangelo to do the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. Michelangelo didn't want to do the project because he was a sculpture, not a painter, but he did it after all. He had acquired some experience

when he was with Ghirlandaio. In 151, the ceiling was done. At this point he was recognized not as only the greatest sculptor but also the greatest painter of his time. In 151 Julius II died and Michelangelo was asked to make his tomb.

Abrams, page -4

In 1545 Michelangelo finally finished the Tomb of Julius. He had worked on it for 40 years. In 154, Michelangelo was asked to take another enormous project in the Sistine Chapel. He was to paint the altar's wall that was the Last Judgment. He made this paint without help of other people. He finished it on 1541. In 154 Paul III asked Michelangelo to paint more frescoes; the Conversion of St. Paul and the Martydom of St. Peter. They were to be for the central section of the Pope's chapel (Paul III). In 1550 the frescoes were finished, and he started working Deposition, the Deposition is a sculpture of Christ that was just took out of the cross after he (Jesus) died. In 1547 Paul III made Michelangelo architect of St. Peter's. He could change whatever he wanted to. Everything seemed well but suddenly Paul got sick and died, so Michelangelo needed to have a meeting with different people that were in charge of art, architecture and social things and with the new pope, Julius III. Julius really liked Michelangelo because of his attitude and he invited him over his palace and talked about art and architecture. Julius III gave him permission to change St. Peter's plus he was also aloud to change the Roman Imperial Capitol. This was an historic and important place for the city. He fixed it so good that he was then considered one of the greatest architects. In 1555, Michelangelo started working on a new Pietà, the Rondanini Pietà. This was a sculpture of Christ with his mother but in spirits forms. In 1564 Michelangelo sadly died on a rainy winter day, he died a few weeks before his ninetieth birthday. By this time the Pietà was still unfinished.

His body was at the church of Holy Apostles. There were hundreds of Romans that passed by the coffin to express their grieve and respect. It took hours to be done with the ceremony. Then he was sent to Florence were all architects, artists, painters, and craftsmen of Florence escorted the coffin. It's said that people fought to carry the coffin, to the burial site. Nearly one thousand of people attended his funeral at the Medici Church.

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"The first scene in the chronological order is The Separation of Light from Darkness. The picture has the figure of God with his arms raised, making the light separated from the darkness."

"The second scene in the chronological order is the Creation of the Sun, Moon, and Plants. In this picture God is on the right side of the paint with his stretched arms, about to make the sun and the moon, and on the other side, he creates grass and the first bushes from the earth."

"The third scene in the chronological order is the Separation of the Earth from the Waters. In this picture God flies over the waters. Behind God the sky is clear and bright, but the other side is grayish-white."

"The fourth scene in the chronological order is the Creation of Adam. In this picture Adam issues from the hand of God as the fingers of God touch in a loving gesture. You can see the love that shows on the face of God and on the face of Adam. Under God's left underarm you can see Eve there watching Adam."

"The fifth scene in the chronological order is the Creation of Eve. In this picture Adam is asleep and Eve is right next to him looking at God with her arms extended towards Him, Adam is asleep because God took one of his limbs to create Eve."

"The sixth scene in the chronological order is the fall and Expulsion from Garden of Eden. The picture is divided into one on the left and one on the right. On the left side Eve holds the apple boldly and Adam takes it greedily. On the right side of the picture there are only rocks a barren tree stump and no life, this is outside of Eden, on the left side the picture is full of life and delight, Adam and Eve's bodies are too plump and smooth, and their hair is luxuriant, this is inside of Eden. On the right of the picture there is a cherub with a raised sword pointing the way out to Adam and Eve."

"The seventh scene in the chronological order is the Sacrifice of Noah. In the picture Noah celebrates the sacrifice on an altar helped by other figures. He is burning a sheep."

"The eighth scene in the chronological order is The Deluge. The arc is in the background, there are some people on a island but they are about to die. There are kind of humans behaviors on this picture The righteous are safe in the ark, the dammed assailed the arc and the people attached to worldly things are trying to find a safe place with their possessions but they can't because they have too much."

"The ninth scene in the chronological order is The Drunkenness of Noah. This picture is the humiliation of the patriarch thanks to the wine."

From the east door of the Chapel to the altar to the west, there are 7 prophets painted in the ceiling by Michelangelo this are

-Zechariah He is painted as an old man with long beard wearing a green cloak, he is reading his book, and there are two boys behind his back.

-Joel He is reading a scroll and he is really into it. He has a book under his feet but it's hard to see it. There is a boy on his right shoulder about to close a book, the other one is bringing him a folio on his left shoulder.

-Isaiah He is looking to his right shoulder and hearing a boy, the boy is excited and pointing to the back. His left arm is raised and with his finger he is like telling the boy to be quiet or stay still. His right arm is holding a book and he has his finger inside the book so he would not lose the page. His feet are without shoes and crossed.

-Ezekiel He has a white bear, looking to his right and he is surprised and really focused of what the boy is saying, the boy is pointing to heaven. He is the only prophet that has a turban wrapped in around his head. He is holding a scroll with his left hand.

-Daniel Is painted young, he is resting his left arm on his book and with his right hand he is writing, a little boy is helping him hold Daniel's book. He is like copying stuff from the book and looks really interested.

-Jeremiah He is resting his head on his right hand with a sorrow expression he might be thinking about something too, his legs are crossed and his left arm is resting on his leg. Behind him there is a woman looking down with a sorrow expression too. On the other side there is a man looking to the right.

-Jonah He is laid back looking at God with his arms turned to his left, his expressions are joy, delight, love and filial response. There are boys that are acting very turbulent on the background, they look a little sad.

http//www.kfki.hu/~arthp/tours/sistina/ Michelangelo and the Sistine chapel. Videocassette. Dir. V.I.E.W. 16.

In Rome, in 156, Twenty years after finishing the ceiling of the Sistine chapel, Michelangelo started the paint called The Last Judgment. Christ separates the blessed and dammed, on the left side of the picture the blessed are ascending to heaven and on the right side of the picture the dammed are descending to hell. A cloud below Christ the apostle Bartholomew is holding a human skin that represents his martyrdom, the skin has Michelangelo's face that represents that he confessed his guilt and unworthiness. The Last Judgment is painted on the altar's wall of the Sistine chapel. This is the largest fresco of the Renaissance. The picture was finished in 1541.

Janson. Page 10 http//www.kfki.hu/~arthp/tours/sistina/

-The Tomb of Julius II Before the assignment of the Sistine ceiling in 1505, Michelangelo had been asked by Julius II to make his tomb, which was planned to be the most magnificent of Christian times. It was located in the new Basilica of St. Peters, that was under construction. Michelangelo really wanted to do the project, that had more than 40 figures. The pope ordered him to put aside the tomb project in favor of painting the Sistine ceiling. After finishing the chapel Michelangelo went back to work on the tomb. Michelangelo made a Moses, one of the finest sculptures.

Janson. Page 10 http//www.kfki.hu/~arthp/tours/sistina/

-The Laurentian Library In the 150s he designed the Laurentian Library and its elegant entrance hall adjoining San Lorenzo, but these structures were finished only decades later. Instead of being not original to classical Greek and Roman practices, Michelangelo used his own style that are columns, pediments, and brackets for a personal and expressive purpose.

Janson. Page 11 http//www.kfki.hu/~arthp/tours/sistina/

-The Medici Tombs Michelangelo undertook the Medici Tombs between 151 and 154. His design have two large wall tombs facing each other in the domed room. One wall was for Lorenzo de Medici, and the other for Giuliano de Medici. The two tombs were representing opposite types the Lorenzo, the contemplative, the introspective personality, and the Giuliano, the active, the extroverted one.

Janson. Page 11 http//www.kfki.hu/~arthp/tours/sistina/

-The Campidoglio Michelangelos program was carried out in the late 1550s, Campidoglio (Capitol) on the Capitoline Hill, is the civic and political heart of the city of Rome. He designed the Campidoglio around an oval shape, with the bronze equestrian statue of the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius in the center. He brought a new unity to the public building facade for the Palazzo dei Conservatori.

Janson. Page 11 http//www.kfki.hu/~arthp/tours/sistina/

-Dome of St. Peter's Basilica In 1546 Michelangelo when he was a chief architect worked on St. Peters Basilica. Michelangelo became responsible for the altar end of the building on the exterior and for the final form of its dome.

Janson. Page 1 http//www.kfki.hu/~arthp/tours/sistina/

"Michelangelo was born into a world were powerful princes ruled. But Michelangelo had gifts, and his extraordinary ability to draw and paint and sculpt figures out of marble became his passport to independence, fame and fortune. He earned the friendship of princes and popes and worked for nearly ninety years creating masterpieces for them, these are sculptures for their palaces, architecture for their libraries and churches. His greatest work of all was to paint the entire ceiling and later a huge wall of the Sistine Chapel in St. Peter's Cathedral, Rome, and the most important church in the Catholic world. This is the world of art, where anything is possible." (Harry Abrams)

Abrams, page 1

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Erik Homburger Erikson

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Erik Homburger Erickson

(10-14)

Erik H. Erikson had an idea that psychosocial development began at birth and that we went through eight different developmental stages in our lives, and each stage connected you to the next stage. Depending on how you did in each stage helped Erikson to decide how you would do in the next. In order to understand this we need to go back in time to when Erikson was a child and move forward, I do believe his childhood is what helped make him decide to become a psychoanalyst.

Erik Homburger Erikson was born in Frankfurt, Germany. His father is an unnamed Danish man, who left his mother before Erik was born. It never says rather or not his mother was married to this man or not. When Erik was three his mother married his pediatrician Dr. Theodor Homburger. Erik's mother and stepfather never told him that Dr. Homburger was not his real father, so Erik grew up believing he was. Erik grew up Jewish looked like he was Danish, and was teased by other children for looking Nordic and being Jewish. It's a wonder he didn't lose it some where along his eight stages. Now lets move on to later in his life. His parents wanted him to study medicine but Erik wanted to an artist. After he graduated from high school Erik went to Europe. He took art classes while he was there.

When he was 5 he applied for a teaching position at an experimental school for American students. Besides teaching art, he got a certificate in Montessori education and a certificate from the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society.

He married Joan Serson and had three children with her. When the Nazis came into power they moved to Boston. Erikson went to work at Harvard Medical School. He later taught at Yale and Berkley. This is a man who never got a college degree working in some of the most prestige's University in America.

When Erik became an American citizen he changed his name to Erik Homburger Erikson. Now lets move on to his theories.

Erik Erikson as I said before, believes we go through eight stages in our lives from infancy through old adulthood. Each one of these stages helps prepare us for the next stage. If you don't do so well in one of the stages you can still correct it in another stage. Depending on your family and friends.

The first stage is from birth to 1yr. of age. Erikson calls this trust vs. mistrust. In order to for an infant to feel trust he must be sure that his care taker will be there to take care of him. If he's hungry he wants to know that he is going to get feed, if he's hurt he wants to be comforted, he's played with, talked to, etc. Without these reassurances the child learns mistrust. When he's hungry he's not fed, if he's hurt he doesn't get comforted, he's ignored, etc. To have mixture of trust and mistrust is good. I know that mom may not come as soon as I cry, but I know mom will be there soon to take of me. With trust the child has hope, with mistrust the child becomes withdrawn.

The second stage is from the age's - yrs. toddler stage. This stage is what Erikson calls autonomy vs. shame and doubt. In this stage in order for the child to reach autonomy we need to let him explore and manipulate things in his world. Let them investigate things. Toddlers want to know what everything is. They want to know what it does what it feels like, can it be moved, does it taste good, etc. You need to let them investigate, but you also don't want them to get hurt, so you have to set some limits as to what they can do. You don't want to limit them too much, because then they begin to doubt things. That you feel they aren't capable of doing it so they must not be able to. If you get a good balance of both they develop the virtue of self-control and self-esteem.

Stage three is from the ages -6 the preschool stage. This stage is what Erikson calls initiative vs. guilt. In order for a child to learn initiative your child needs to learn responsibilities, learn new skills. Let them use their imagination and through their imagination help them to see if they can't make some of come true. Children learn guilt through learning right from wrong. Through learning new responsibilities, new skills and the use of imagination, children learn what they are allowed to do and what they are not allowed to do. When a child does something they know they shouldn't have done they feel guilty for about. If you have a good balance of initiative and guilt you have a child with virtue purpose in his life.

Stage four is from ages 7-1 the school age child. This stage is what Erikson calls industry vs. inferiority. At this stage we as children need to tame our imagination and become more involved in education and social skills that are required of us. I'm not saying to lose your imagination, just get under control. How boring life would be if we stopped imagining. A lot of things never would have been invented, like our nice handy computers with word processors. This is an important stage I feel. This is when children need to feel like they fit in. They have parents, friends, and teachers all telling them what to do. If your parents, teachers and friends praise and encourage them, they learn industry or the feeling of success. On the other hand if their parents or teachers are too harsh and their peers reject them, then they learn inferiority. Given a balance of both you have the virtue of competence.

Stage five is from ages 1-18 the adolescence. Erikson calls this ego-identity vs. role-confusion. In this stage you have to get to know who you are. That never ending question, " Who am I?" needs to be answered in some way at this stage. You need to know who you are and how you fit in to the world around you. If we don't come to some kind of a conclusion at this stage we have role-confusion. When adolescence is confronted with role-confusion, Erikson says he or she is suffering from an identity crisis. If you have the right amount of both you have the virtue of fidelity.

Stage six is when your in your 0's, young adulthood. This is the stage Erikson describes as intimacy vs. isolation. Intimacy is the ability to love, to be close to others as friends, lovers, and predicating in society. To love is like being able to love someone enough to marry them. You're not afraid of the commitment that goes with it. To be close to others is like having close friends that you would trust you're with. Participating in society is getting involved in your community. On the other hand isolation is being afraid to try anything, because your afraid you might get hurt and you don't want to take the chance. You shy away from love, friends, and community. If you get a right amount of each you have the virtue of love.

Stage seven late 0's to the 50's, middle adult. This the stage Erikson describes as generativity vs. self-absorption. Generativity is wanting to make sure that the world goes on. To make sure there is a future for children and their children and expecting nothing in return. Self-absorption is caring for no one. You look out for number one, which is you. You no longer want to be a useful part of society. If you manage a good balance of both you learn the virtue of caring.

Stage eight your 50's and beyond, old adult. This stage Erikson describes as integrity vs. despair. Integrity is being able to come face to face with your life and all that you have done in it and being able to except it and can approach death without fear. Despair is just the opposite. Looking at your life and wondering what you could have done different to have made it better. Your not to thrilled about death, because you don't think you are finished yet. You need to more. Someone who can approach death without fear has the strength Erikson calls wisdom. Erikson says, "healthy children will not fear life if their elders have integrity enough not to fear death."

Erik Erikson has accomplished a lot. If you look at his stages you can see he had to overcome certain parts along the way. Being told the man his mother married was his father, in fact he wasn't. Being teased for looking Nordic and being Jewish. So he had to overcome obstacles himself. This is part of why he wanted to study psychosocial development. If you look over his stages you can see he is real close to how we are.

Stage (age)

____________

I (0-1) infancy

____________

II (-) toddler

____________

III (-6) preschooler

____________

IV (7-1 or so)

School-age child

____________

V (1-18 or so)

Adolescence

____________

VI (the 0's)

Young adult

____________

VII (late 0's to 50's) middle adult

____________

VIII (50's and beyond) old adult

Psychosocial Crisis

____________

Trust vs. mistrust

____________

Autonomy vs. shame and doubt

____________

Initiative vs. guilt

____________

Industry vs. inferiority

____________

Ego-identity vs. role-confusion

____________

Intimacy vs. isolation

____________

Generativity vs. self-absorption

____________

Integrity vs. despair

Significant Relations

____________

mother

____________

parents

____________

family

____________

neighborhood and school

____________

Peer groups,

Role models

____________

Partners, friends

____________

Household, workmates

____________

Mankind or "my kind"

Psychosocial Modalities

____________

To get, to give in return

____________

To hold on, to let go

____________

To go after, to play

____________

To complete, to make things together

____________

To be oneself, to share oneself

____________

To lose and find oneself in another

____________

To make be, to take care of

____________

To be, through having been, to face not being

Psychosocial Virtues

____________

Hope, faith

____________

Will, determination

____________

Purpose, courage

____________

Competence

____________

Fidelity, loyalty

____________

Love

____________

Care

____________

wisdom

Maladaption & Malignancies

____________

Sensory distortion-- withdrawal

____________

Impulsivity-- compulsion

____________

Ruthlessness-- inhibition

____________

Narrow virtuosity-- inertia

____________

Fanaticism-- repudiation

____________

Promiscuity-- exclusivity

____________

Overextension -- rejectivity

____________

Presumption-- despair

Title Erik Homburger Erikson

I.Introduction

II.Early Childhood

A.His father

1.Left before he was born

.Never told about him

B.Being Danish and Jewish

1.Looked Nordic

.Teased by other children

III.Later years

A.Schooling

1.Graduated high school

.Art classes

.Montessori Certificate

4. Vienna Psychoanalytic Society

B.Work

1.Taught art at an experimental school

.Harvard Medical School

.Yale

4.University California, Berkley

C.Marriage

D.Changed name

IV.Psychosocial stages

A.Eight stages

B.Infancy trust, mistrust

1.Being cared for

.Not being cared for

.Virtue hope

C.Toddler autonomy, shame

1.Manipulate things

.Set limits

.Virtue self-esteem

D.Preschool initiative, guilt

1.Responsibility and new skills

.Doing wrong

.Virtue purpose

E.School age industry, inferiority

1.Tame imagination

.Education

.Social skills

4.Harshness

5.Peer rejection

6.Virtue competence

F.Adolescence ego-identity, role-confusion

1.Know who you are

.Fit in

.Crisis-crisis

4.Virtue fidelity

G.Young adulthood intimacy, isolation

1.Love

.Close friends

.Community

4.Fear to try new things

5.Virtue love

H.Middle adult generativity, self-absorption

1.Future for children

.Care for no one

.Virtue caring

I.Old adult integrity, despair

1.Face your life no regrets

.Face your life fear

.Virtue wisdom

V.Conclusion

Evans, Richard I. Dialogue with Erik Erikson. New York E.P. Dutton & Co., 16

Maier, Henery W. Three Theories of child development Revised Edition. New York Harper & Row, 16

Roazen, Paul. Erik H. Erikson The power and limits of a vision. New York The Free Press, 176

www.ship.edu Erik Erikson

www.snycorva.cortland.edu Erik Homburger Erikson

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The Position of The Presidency

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I would like to explain an American idea that has shaped this country from its beginnings. What do you think of when you hear the names George Washington, Abraham Lincoln, Franklin D. Roosevelt, John F. Kennedy, and George W. Bush. These are all names that should bring to mind the great position of the presidency. How often is it that you consider, historically, how these men came to be a United States President? Do you ever think about what the president's duties entail and what powers they hold? Do you wonder how they use these powers to oversee our government? Maybe you're a political science buff and can explain each of these off the cuff. Or possibly, you're very much like me; you only know the general concepts of these areas. Either way, I hope you will learn at least a little something from the various aspects of what I'm about to explain regarding the position of the United States Presidency.

As I researched this subject I realized that we as Americans don't really think about how unique our concept of a president is. So I'm going to challenge you to look back in history and envision yourself in the position of our founding fathers. The Revolutionary War is over; independence is achieved from Britain and we are now left to the decision of how to deal with our freedom. We have only the Declaration of Independence to act as our guide to the values of a new American government. Tough position? I'd say so. But, like all things, this process of building a government came in pieces and it started with the Continental Congress. On September 5, 1774 the Continental Congress of the United States was formed in response to the Intolerable Acts passed by King George III. (President of) This Congress was basically a group of men, lead by a chairman, that came together to petition the various English laws that now affected them in their American colonies. This Congress continued for almost two years with no relief from Britain, so on July , 1776 they declared their independence from Great Britain by the signing of the Declaration of Independence. (Klos, Happy Birthday)

With this declaration declared, a war began and the colonies realized they needed some sort of formal documentation to oversee their war against England. On November 5, 1777 the Continental Congress passed the original Articles of Confederation. (President of) The Congress, realizing these articles were very much a rough draft of what was needed for their new United States, required that all thirteen states be ratified before the document could officially become the first Constitution. In the course of the next 4 years each of the states slowly became ratified. On March 1, 1781 the Continental Congress ceased to exist and was replaced with The United States in Congress Assembled. . (Klos, President Who)The Articles of Confederation established various statutes that laid the foundation for the government we have today. They named our country The United States of America and formed a bond between all the states for "their common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them." (Articles) This fellowship allowed free men to move liberally around the states and created accountability for criminals by forcing them to return to the state of their crime if they were caught in another state. It laid the basic ground rules for the delegates to Congress and the general powers that Congress would have.

One of the powers of Congress laid out in the Articles was the authority to appoint a committee called "A Committee of the States" that would sit in recess of Congress. The committee would consist of a single delegate from each state and that one member would "serve in the office of president." This president along with his committee carried the responsibility and power to "ascertain the necessary sums of money to be raised for the service of the United States, and to appropriate and apply the same for defraying the public expenses to borrow money, or emit bills on the credit of the United States… to build and equip a navy… at the expense of the United States." (Articles) The presidential position on this committee established a title that our country would soon use for the leader of our land and laid a foundation for that position to grow upon.

Over time the articles proved to be insufficient because it limited the power of the central government way too much for it to govern effectively. The problems this caused forced the Congress Assembled to call for a Constitutional Convention. This convention occurred on February 1, 1787 and the goal was to revise the articles to give considerably more power to the federal government. (President of) The Constitutional Convention began on May 5, 1787. Several issues were discussed and debated, among these were the establishment of a governmental leader. After more than three months of debate the basic shape of the presidency materialized "a single leader, elected to a four-year term and eligible for reelection, with authority to veto bills enacted by Congress. The president was given command of the military and the power to appoint federal officials, subject to confirmation by the Senate." (Constitution of) From this day forward this position would begin to reflect on the nature of our country.

The power and responsibilities of the presidency have grown since the day of its birth. They have grown so much that they are almost more than one person can handle. In brief, the Constitution requires that the president "discharge the duties of the office and preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States." The Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary defines each of these words as followed. To preserve, meaning to keep safe from injury, harm or destruction. To protect, meaning to cover or shield from injury or destruction. To defend, meaning to drive danger or attack away from and to maintain or support. These words, although fairly specific in their dictionary meaning, become very broad in terms when associated with a position and its responsibility to the Constitution of the United States. This statement is short but extensive in such a way that as the years pass the president continues to incur more and more responsibilities.

One of the most impacting areas of responsibility for the president is in the area of legislative matters. The president is the nations chief legislator. He is tasked with giving guidance and setting priorities for our nations Congress. He proposes and pursues a very large portion of the actual legislation heard by Congress. He has the power to "strong-arm" Congress in this process with his power of veto, which can block bills that the president does not want in legislation. The president is also in charge of executing the laws of the United States and ensuring the implementation by directing various administrative agencies. (President of)

The second major area of presidential responsibility is in the judicial process. First and foremost is his responsibility to appoint judges to the Supreme Court, our highest court in the land. These appointments are extremely important because as the Supreme Court is the highest law of the land, they constantly set forth standards for all other courts to follow. The president is also responsible for executing the laws that are set forth. He does this by appointing the leaders of each of our federal agencies who are in turn responsible for ensuring that when the law is broken that offenders are punished. (President of)

A third area of responsibility is the president's influence on our economy and foreign policy. At the start of the first term the president initiates budget and tax proposals, often increasing or cutting funds that affect our entire country. He has the power to regulate various industries by the enforcement of safety and environmental regulations. He has the ability to shape tariffs on imports, this affects the thousands of businesses that buy and sell goods to other countries, which flows directly into his role in foreign policy. In respect to foreign policy he is the chief diplomat of the United States and the Constitution gives him the power to negotiate treaties and appoint diplomatic representatives. He has the power to negotiate executive agreements with foreign countries and has the discretion of whether or not to give official recognition to foreign governments. (The Office)

The president also holds many powers over various organizations within the United States. First and foremost, he is our commander in chief of our armed forces giving him an array of powers to direct our military in times of war and peace. As the primary military commander he is responsible for our nations security and the safety of its people. With this responsibility lies the power of appointing men and women to various high level positions so that they can ensure the countries security and safety is maintained. He is in charge of appointing members of the Cabinet, employing the head of independent federal agencies, and commissioning all officers of the armed forces. (Gesell, 8)

Lastly, the president is the leader of the executive branch of the federal government. This branch consists of fourteen departments agriculture, commerce, defense, education, energy, health and human services, housing and urban development, interior, justice, labor, state, transportation, treasury, and veteran's affairs. The president is also in charge of directing various independent agencies to include the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), Export-Import Bank, Federal Communications Commission (FCC), Federal Election Commission, Federal Maritime Commission, Federal Reserve System, Federal Trade Commission (FTC), General Services Administration, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities, National Labor Relations Board, National Science Foundation, Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), Small Business Administration, United States Information Agency, and the Postal Service. (Squire, ) The role of the president in these departments is as involved as he chooses to be. He may simply decide to identify the heads of these organizations and trust them to run them appropriately or he may take a more active role by constantly being involved. There is no direction as to how he must interact with these organizations.

I have told you a little about how our position of the president was made and some of the tasks the position accomplishes. A president, our president, holds a huge amount of responsibility. With the growth of our country from 1 colonies to 50 states so has the role of the president grown. This idea is unique because our president does not rule; he leads, hopefully by example. As a leader he is elected, not born in to, the position. He is forced to look to the people, us, and seek approval for his actions. His position is one of great importance that weights heavily upon our country. I hope that you have learned a little about the historical nature of how this position was created and what the position has grown into today, and maybe you now have a deeper understanding of not only the importance and uniqueness of this position, but also how it works.

Gesell, Laurence. Aviation and the Law. Arizona; Coast Aire Publications, 18

Articles of Confederation. Online. Mar. 00. Avaliable FTP odur.let.rug.nl

President of the United States. CD-ROM. Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 001.

The Office of the President. Online. Mar. 00. Available FTP www.worldbook.com

Klos, Stanley. Happy Birthday United States. Online. Mar. 00. Available FTP

www.uspresidency.com

---. President Who? Online. Mar. 00. Available FTP www.uspresidency.com

Squire, Peverill, James Lindsay, Cary Covington, and Eric Smith. Brief Edition

Dynamics of Democracy. McGraw-Hill. 17. 01-4

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